JEWISH 
FORERUNNERS 

OF 

CHRISTIANITY 


ADOLPH  DANZIGER. 


JEWISH    FORERUNNERS 


OF 


CHRISTIANITY 


BY 

ADOLPH   DANZIGER 


NEW  YORK 
E.  P.  DUTTON  &  COMPANY 

31  West  Twenty-third  Street 
1903 


Copyright,  1903 

BY 

E.  P.  DUTTON  &  CO. 

Published,  March,  1903 


Ube  •ftntcherbocfter  press,  -ftew  i?orft 


TO 

PHCEBE  A.   HEARST 

THE    GENEROUS    PATRONESS    OF    EDUCATION 

THIS    VOLUME 

IS    RESPECTFULLY    INSCRIBED 

BY    THE    AUTHOR 


327170 


CONTENTS 


PAGH 

Introduction vii 

CHAPTER  I. 
hlllel  the  babylonian,  forerunner  of  christ  ; 
Shammai  the  Nationalist,  Opponent  of 
Hillel I 

CHAPTER  II. 
Jesus  of   Nazareth  :    Talmudic    Evidences  of 

His  Life  and  Death     .         .         .         .         .30 

CHAPTER  III. 
yochanan    ren    zakkai,     the    "  least   of    the 

Disciples"  of  Hillel   .         .         .         .         .55 

CHAPTER  IV. 
'Haninah  ben  Dosa,  the  Second  Shammai        .     73 

CHAPTER  V. 
Eliezer   ben    Hyrkanos,   the   Disciple   of   Ben 

Zakkai,   who    Embraced    Christianity         .     91 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Josua    ben    Hananiah,   the  Blacksmith- Judge 

and  Friend  of  Hadrian       ....   122 

V 


VI  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Akibah    the    Revolutionist,    Forerunner    of 

Mohammed 152 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Rabbi    Mair   the  Illustrious,    and  Acher  the 
Agnostic 185 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Simon    ben    Yohai,    Rival    of    the    House   of 

Hillel;    his  son  Eleazar     .         .         .         .211 

CHAPTER  X. 
Rabbi    Juda    the    Prince,     Compiler    of    the 
mlshnah,    the    founder   of   talmudic 
Literature 242 

Notes     .......  .   275 

Index 319 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  singular  position  of  the  Jewish  people  in  the 
modern  world  is  a  fact  of  supreme  interest  to 
the  student  of  history.  It  constitutes  a  large  and 
powerful  nationality  (whatever  may  be  said  to  the 
contrary),  without  political  organization  or  a  native 
land,  spread  amongst  the  other  nations,  yet  preserv- 
ing its  own  institutions,  its  own  religion,  its  own 
language,  while  mingling  in  the  business,  intellectual, 
and  political  life  of  those  others. 

It  is  hated  in  some  places,  it  is  flattered  in  others, 
but  it  never  is  ignored,  and  it  everywhere  gives  evi- 
dence of  active  national  life  after  an  existence  of 
nearly  four  thousand  years.  But  this  is  only  a  part, 
and  not  the  largest  part,  of  the  claims  of  the  Jewish 
people  on  the  attention  of  thinkers  of  every  land. 
It  and  its  literature  have  been  the  subject  of  discus- 
sion for  centuries  by  competent  and  incompetent, 
by  friend  and  foe,  alike.  From  it  have  sprung  the 
moulders  of  religious  thought  of  all  the  great  Western 
nations.  Christianity  recognizes  the  Hebrew  Law 
and  the  Hebrew  patriarchs  of  three  thousand  years 
ago  as  an  integral  part  of  its  history.  Jesus,  recog- 
nized by  the  Christian  world  as  the  Mediator  be- 
tween God  and  man,  belongs  by  parentage  to  the 
royal  House  of  David.     Mary  and  Joseph  and  Peter 

vii 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

and  Paul  and  John,  all  of  purest  race,  are  the  highest 
in  honor  of  all  in  the  roll  of  the  Christian  Church. 

Beyond  the  wide  extent  of  Christendom,  the  creed 
of  Mohammed  occupies  an  almost  equal  portion  of 
the  earth  from  Senegambia  to  Java,  from  Siberia  to 
the  Sahara  and  Hindustan.  That  creed,  too,  is  dis- 
tinctly traceable  to  a  Jewish  source.  The  Arabian 
Prophet  was  of  Jewish  race  by  the  mother's  side; 
his  thought  was  moulded  by  Jewish  scripture  and 
the  teachings  of  a  Jewish  master.  He  recognized 
the  Jewish  revelation  as  a  forerunner  of  that  which 
he  claimed  was  made  to  himself,  and  the  ceremonial 
of  his  law  is  largely  Jewish  in  form.  The  strong 
analogy  between  his  career  and  that  of  a  Jewish 
leader  five  centuries  earlier  is  touched  on  in  the 
pages  following  in  this  work. 

The  object  proposed  is  to  sketch  from  contempo- 
rary Hebrew  literature  the  workings  of  the  Jewish 
mind  during  the  period  when  the  race  was  passing 
from  tribal  to  cosmopolitan  existence,  and  its  religion 
widening  from  the  practice  of  one  land  to  a  world- 
wide system.  Great  as  has  been  the  part  played  by 
the  Jewish  people  in  the  history  of  mankind,  it  has 
been  entirely  different  from  that  of  other  nations 
generally  recognized  as  leaders.  Its  distinction  is 
in  the  moral  and  mental  field,  not  in  that  of  war  or 
political  organization.  It  is  not,  then,  by  records  of 
conquest  or  legislation,  although  law  has  had  consid- 
erable influence  in  moulding  the  religious  character 
of  the  Jew,  that  the  development  of  the  race  can 
properly  be  studied.  It  is  rather  in  the  lives  of  the 
teachers  and  thinkers,  who,  in  the  democratic  the- 


INTRODUCTION  IX 

ocracy  of  Jewish  society,  formed  the  national  policy 
and  shaped  the  minds  of  the  people.  We  have 
chosen  a  series  of  the  most  prominent  of  these 
masters  in  Israel  to  illustrate  the  course  of  events  in 
the  Jewish  nation  during  the  last  two  centuries  of 
its  separate  existence.  Their  story  is  mainly  drawn 
from  the  literature  of  their  own  time,  as  embodied 
in  the  great  collection  of  the  Talmuds,  known  as  the 
Babylonian  and  Jerusalemic.  Different  as  the  style 
of  that  work  is  from  modern  methods  and  modes  of 
thought,  it  contains  ample  foundation  of  fact  to  base 
intelligent  historical  work  on,  especially  when  one 
seeks  to  know  the  nature  of  mental  action  of  the 
period,  rather  than  the  chronology  of  external  facts. 
The  Jews  in  Palestine,  under  the  Asmonean  kings, 
formed  a  small,  independent  power  between  Syria 
and  Arabia.  By  the  outside  world  they  were  re- 
garded in  the  same  light  as  others  of  the  numerous 
kingdoms  of  Western  Asia.  The  Roman  historian, 
Tacitus,  contemptuously  says  they  were  the  "most 
despised  of  the  conquered  under  Medes,  Persians, 
and  Greeks,"  but  they  had  won  some  distinction 
by  their  successful  revolt  against  the  Grecian  kings 
of  Syria.  In  their  own  minds,  however,  the  Jews 
regarded  themselves  as  superior  to  all  the  other 
branches  of  mankind.  They  were  the  chosen  people 
of  the  Most  High  God,  entrusted  with  the  knowl- 
edge of  his  Law,  and  placed  by  his  special  command 
in  the  land  which  they  had  then  possessed  for  four- 
teen centuries.  During  that  time  they  had  seen 
both  good  and  bad  fortune.  David  had  extended 
their  rule  over  Syria,  and  the  wealth  and  glory  of 


X  INTRODUCTION 

Solomon  was  the  theme  of  admiration  all  through 
Western  Asia  still.  They  had  suffered  deeply  too. 
The  larger  part  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  had  been  dis- 
persed in  unknown  lands,  and  the  remnant  had  been 
carried  to  Babylon  as  captives  for  two  generations, 
but  still  they  had  returned.  They  had  increased 
after  the  captivity,  under  Persian  and  Greek,  into  a 
nation  of  probably  two  millions  in  Palestine. 

All  through  their  checkered  history,  the  Hebrew 
people  held  faith  in  a  future  great  development  of 
their  nation  of  a  permanent  and  beneficial  kind. 
What  its  exact  nature  would  be  they  did  not  de- 
termine. They  held  that  such  a  development  was 
intended  by  divine  counsel,  and  the  House  of  Israel 
was  to  be  a  central  figure  in  it.  Moreover  this 
beneficent  development  was  to  be  accomplished  by  a 
supernatural  person,  to  appear  on  earth  at  some 
future  time,  but  meanwhile  watching  over  the  fate 
of  the  Jewish  people.1 

These  two  ideas  were  deeply  fixed  in  the  minds 
of  the  Jewish  population,  and  intensified  the  patri- 
otic feelings  which  they  possessed  in  common  with 
other  nations.  The  love  of  the  Jews  for  their  native 
land  and  its  Law,  both  given  specially  by  the  Lord 
to  them,  was  far  stronger  than  that  of  the  Spartan 
or  Roman  for  their  respective  countries.  It  was  not 
alone  the  interests  of  the  present  or  pride  in  the 

1  rwnn  nio»S  kSn  iioana  vh  \bn  owaan  hi— "  All  the  Prophets 

had  in  view  the  Messianic  time  in  their  prophecies." — Talmud  Babli, 
Sanhedrin  99 ;  and  Midrash  Rabba,  Genesis  24,  67  :  D'NUin  SanB-'BO 
O'Om  ]Tvhy  B»p20  Kin — "  When  Israel  transgresses  He  [the  Messiah] 
asks  mercy  for  them." 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

past  that  kept  up  the  national  spirit,  but  abiding 
faith  in  a  future  more  glorious  than  any  yet  seen  on 
earth  for  the  Jewish  nation.  The  land  of  Palestine 
was  almost  as  closely  connected  with  that  nationality, 
in  the  minds  of  the  people,  as  their  own  existence, 
or  the  Law  of  which  they  were  the  guardians.  Jeru- 
salem was  to  share  with  the  Jew  in  the  future  promi- 
nence assured  by  prophecy.  In  Palestine,  alone, 
the  religious  rites  prescribed  by  God  could  be  fully 
accomplished.  The  descendants  of  Abraham,  away 
from  Palestine,  were  only  exiles.  They  might  keep 
up  their  connection  with  Jewish  nationality  by  ob- 
servance of  the  Law  and  by  following  implicitly  the 
teachings  of  the  masters  of  the  Law  in  the  Holy 
Land,  but  they  were  distinctively  regarded  as  in  an 
unfortunate  position.  In  fact,  the  law  governing 
Jewish  residents  in  another  land  differed  essentially 
in  many  respects  from  that  applied  to  those  living 
in  Palestine.  The  man  whom  circumstances  forced 
to  live  away  from  the  Holy  Land — 'Hutz  la-Aretz 
{ex  patrid) — was  an  object  of  pity.  There  was  no 
thought  of  voluntarily  spreading  to  other  lands 
among  the  Palestine  Jews,  when  the  Asmonean 
kings  held  independent  sway  in  Jerusalem  and  the 
Temple  of  the  Lord  crowned  Mount  Moriah. 

The  divine  Law  itself  was  moulded  under  these 
ideas  during  many  generations  of  Rabbis.  The  con- 
ditions of  life  in  Palestine  were  looked  on  as  the 
normal  conditions  of  humanity  in  its  highest  state, 
and  the  practical  requirements  of  worship  and  morals 
were  framed  on  that  theory.  The  Sanhedrin,  the 
Parliament  of  the  nation,  was  made  up  of  men  trained 


Xli  INTRODUCTION 

in  the  Law  in  the  rabbinical  schools  of  Palestine,  and 
their  decisions  had  the  force  of  law  for  the  people 
as  a  part  of  revelation  itself.  A  narrow  and  bigoted 
cast  of  mind  was  thus  engendered,  which  made  the 
Jews  the  object  of  special  dislike  to  the  nations  with 
whom  they  came  in  contact.  It  was  the  very  reverse 
of  the  character  fitted  for  a  colonizing  race  or  for 
one  destined  to  intellectual  leadership  among  men. 

Hillel,  a  Jew  of  Babylonian  birth,  who  came  to 
Jerusalem  as  a  needy  student   under  the  reign  of 
Herod,  and  by  sheer  force  of  talent  won  his  way  to 
the  Presidency  of  the  Sanhedrin,  was  the  first  to  see 
the  unfitness  of  this  frame  of  thought  to  the  condi- 
tions and  development  of  the  Jewish  race.     He  com- 
bated it  long  and  earnestly,  and  he  trained  disciples 
on  his  own  ideas.    His  personality  was  strong  enough 
to  secure  the  continuance  of   his  descendants  for 
many  generations  in  the  office  of  President  of  the 
Sanhedrin,  which,  after  the  suppression  of  the  mon- 
archy,  became  the  highest   power  in   the  national 
organization.     A  rival  school,  the  House  of  Sham- 
mai,  maintained,  during  two  centuries,  a  vigorous 
opposition  to  the  policy   of  the   House  of   Hillel. 
At  times,  it  was  stronger  with  the  nation  in  virtue 
of  its  hot  national  patriotism,  or  the  superior  talent 
of  its  professors.      The   House  of    Hillel  and   the 
House  of  Shammai  were,   in  fact,   in  modern   lan- 
guage, the  Liberal  and  the  Conservative  parties  in 
the  Jewish  nation.     The  great   powers  of  Akibah, 
with  the  help  of  the  Rabbis  of  the  House  of  Sham- 
mai,   precipitated    the    revolt   against    the   Romans 
under  Hadrian.     Akibah  audaciously  proclaimed  a 


INTRODUCTION  XU1 

leader  of  his  own  choice  as  the  divinely  sent  Mes- 
siah, in  the  person  of  Bar  Kochba,  and  essayed  to 
found  a  Jewish  Empire  of  the  East  by  armed  force. 
His  failure  quenched  among  the  larger  part  of  the 
people  the  idea  of  a  Jewish  conqueror  yet  to  come. 
A  little  later,  Rabbi  Judah,  the  Prince,  walking  in 
the  footsteps  of  his  ancestor  Hillel,  devoted  himself 
to  the  work  of  binding  the  nation  together  by  the 
bonds  of  literature  and  Law  which  might  preserve 
its  nationality  even  if  scattered  through  other  lands. 

Nationalism  rs  common  to  the  people  of  every 
land.  It  was  specially  developed  among  the  Jews 
by  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  divine  Law  re- 
vealed to  Moses.  The  maintenance  of  nationality 
for  the  Jew  was  a  religious  duty  in  the  fullest  sense 
of  the  word  as  well  as  a  human  sentiment.  Were 
Israel  to  pass  away,  as  other  nations  once  greater 
in  power  had  done,  the  religious  Jews  felt  that  the 
Lord's  work,  not  man's  alone,  would  be  destroyed. 
But  growth  and  decay  are  the  common  lot  of  nations 
as  of  men.  Race  sympathy,  language,  country,  and 
common  laws  are  the  bonds  which  maintain  the  dura- 
tion of  human  societies,  and  each  is  subject  to  change 
with  the  course  of  time  until  the  society  itself  is  dis- 
solved and  others  take  its  place  with  new  forms. 

Under  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  Empire  it  was 
evident  that  the  Jewish  people  could  not  continue 
to  maintain  itself  long  in  its  hereditary  land.  It 
could  not  endure  the  oppression  of  the  Roman 
tax-gatherer  and  the  Roman  soldier.  The  Roman 
Government,  after  the  repeated  rebellions  of  the 
Hebrews,  was  desirous  to  scatter  them  through  its 


XIV  INTRODUCTION 

dominions,  and  events  helped  this  political  purpose. 
The  keen  intelligence  of  the  race  made  them  traders 
rather  than  cultivators,  and  trade  naturally  led  to 
travel  and  settlement  abroad.  Strong  as  was  the 
race  patriotism  of  the  people  it  had  failed  to  keep 
up  a  distinct  nationality  in  the  large  section  of  the 
Jews  that  had  been  carried  to  distant  lands  by  the 
Assyrian  conqueror.  The  ten  tribes  were  lost  for- 
ever to  national  existence  when  torn  from  the 
promised  land.  That  a  similar  fate  did  not  fall 
upon  Judah  seems  due  largely  to  the  work  of  Hillel 
and  his  descendant,  Judah,  the  Prince. 

The  work  of  the  latter  was  to  make  rabbinic 
literature  a  handmaid  and  protector  to  the  Hebrew 
Law.  The  divine  Law  had  been  a  written  one, 
but  the  interpretations  and  deductions  which  had 
sprung  from  it  during  the  course  of  centuries  were 
only  preserved  by  tradition.  Custom  had  so  ruled 
rigidly.  Masters  of  the  Law  and  Judges  in  Israel 
were  carefully  trained  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion, but  it  was  by  the  spoken  not  the  written 
word.  The  "sayings"  of  the  wise  as  well  as  the 
decisions  of  the  Judges  were  handed  down  in  the 
schools  of  Palestine,  and  whoever  wished  to  become 
learned  in  the  law,  had  to  go  to  Palestine  and  spend 
long  years  there  for  that  end.  This  is  exemplified 
in  the  cases  of  Ben  Hyrkanos,  Akibah,  and  Hillel. 
Those  who  could  not  give  the  time  for  this  exclusive 
application  were  forced  to  remain  among  the  "ig- 
norant," who  might,  indeed,  attain  salvation  by 
obedience,  but  who  were  regarded  as  morally  and 
intellectually  the  inferiors  of  the   Rabbis  and   stu- 


INTRODUCTION  XV 

dents.  When  the  Prince  reduced  to  writing  the 
whole  mass  of  traditional  lore,  it  became  possible 
for  the  Jewish  dweller  of  any  land  to  acquire  the 
w  isdom  of  his  fathers  and  train  his  mind  in  its  study. 
A  Jew  needed  no  longer  to  journey  to  Palestine  to 
become  a  scholar  or  a  master  in  Israel.  Thus,  in 
fact,  the  religious  thought  first  developed  in  the 
Holy  Land  has  been  kept  unchanged  through  eigh- 
teen centuries  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe  where 
Jews  dwell. 

Three  men  were  specially  prominent  in  the  modi- 
fications of  the  Jewish  people  and  customs  while 
they  yet  dwelt  in  Palestine:  Hillel  gave  them  a  cos- 
mopolitan character  as  opposed  to  the  old  tribal  one  ; 
Akibah,  by  the  failure  of  his  great  rebellion,  caused 
the  abandonment  among  his  people  of  the  dream 
of  a  military  supremacy  which  had  almost  become 
part  of  their  creed;  Rabbi  Judah,  the  Prince,  by  the 
formation  of  rabbinic  literature,  gave  the  race  a 
centre  of  union  which  had  been  strong  enough 
to  perpetuate  their  nationality  through  centuries  of 
subjection  and  dispersion.  I  have  tried  to  show 
the  modern  reader  what  manner  of  men  these  Masters 
in  Israel  and  their  fellows  were  in  these  sketches. 

I  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  my  deep  sense  of 
obligation  to  Miss  Henrietta  Szold,  of  Baltimore, 
whose  lucid  criticism  of  another  work  of  mine  sug- 
gested the  writing  of  this  book,  and  to  my  friend, 
Mr.  Beyant  J.  Clinch,  of  San  Francisco,  California, 
who  greatly  aided  me  with  valuable  suggestions  and 
a  revision  of  the  manuscript. 

Adolphe  Danziger. 


JEWISH  FORERUNNERS  OF 
CHRISTIANITY 


CHAPTER   I 

HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST 

A  BRIEF  description  of  the  life  and  politics  of 
the  Jewish  people  during  the  last  period  of  its 
existence  as  a  distinct  nation  in  Palestine  is  needed 
for  the  proper  comprehension  of  the  lives  of  its 
prominent  men. 

That  period  extended  from  the  time  when  the 
Persian  king,  Cyrus,  five  centuries  before  Christ, 
sent  back  the  captives  of  Babylon  to  Palestine, 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  third  century  after  Christ. 

The  people  that  returned  to  the  Holy  Land  after 
the  seventy  years'  captivity,  numbered  only  a  few, 
probably  one  or  two  hundred  thousand.  They  grew 
in  numbers  and  wealth  rapidly,  and  when  the  Roman 
conquerors  made  them  part  of  their  Empire,  the 
Jewish  population  numbered  two  or  three  millions. 

When  the  captives  returned  the  old  kingdom  of 
David  was  not  restored.     As  in  the  old  days  before 

Saul,  the  people  had  no  ruler  but  the  Law  of  Moses 

i 

i 


2         JEWISH    FORERUNNERS    OF   CHRISTIANITY 

and  its  authorized  religious  interpreters.  The  Rabbis 
or  teachers  of  the  Law  were  also  the  Judges  of  civil 
affairs,  and  practically  the  rulers  of  the  community. 

The  priesthood  attached  to  the  service  of  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  had  high  dignity  but  no  po- 
litical power.  The  whole  polity  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple had  been  formed  by  Moses  on  a  strictly  religious 
basis,  but  the  priesthood  employed  in  sacrifices  and 
ceremonial  was  not  the  guardian  of  religious  doc- 
trines nor  the  judge  in  them.  These  functions  were 
filled  by  the  Rabbis,  who  were  also  a  clergy,  in 
modern  language. 

Each  generation  of  Rabbis  taught,  by  word  of 
mouth,  the  Law  to  the  people  and  also  trained  up  dis- 
ciples to  fill  their  own  ranks.  The  intellectual  activ- 
ity of  the  race  was  concentrated  on  the  study  of  the 
Law,  as  that  of  Mediaeval  Europe  was  on  the  study 
of  theology  and  scholastic  philosophy.  'Rabbi" 
and  "scholar"  were  synonymous,  as  "clerk"  (cleric) 
and  "learned  man"  were  in  Europe  six  centuries  ago. 

Each  distinguished  Rabbi  gathered  disciples  in 
proportion  to  his  reputation  for  learning,  and  when 
he  deemed  any  of  them  thoroughly  skilled  in  the 
Law,  he  ordained  him  Rabbi  and  gave  him  the  right 
to  teach  and  preach  in  the  synagogues. 

The  ruling  body  of  the  nation,  the  Sanhedrin, 
was  a  council  of  the  leading  Rabbis,  who  judged  the 
people  according  to  the  Law  of  Moses,  both  as 
written  in  the  Scripture  and  as  handed  down  by 
tradition  of  the  schools.  The  Sanhedrin  chose  its 
own  members  and  elected  its  President  and  Chief 
Judge,  who  was  of  nearly  equal  authority. 


HILLEL,    THE    FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST  3 

In  all  important  cases  the  majority  vote  of  the 
Sanhedrin  was  the  supreme  power  among  the  Jewish 
people,  both  for  making,  or  rather  declaring,  laws 
and  pronouncing  on  their  application.  The  Sanhe- 
drin was  practically  legislature  and  Supreme  Court. 
For  the  enforcement  of  its  decisions  it  depended  on 
the  action  of  the  people.  This  state  of  affairs  con- 
tinued, with  some  slight  changes,  down  to  the  do- 
minion of  the  Greek  successors  of  Alexander  in 
Syria.  The  Antiochid  kings  tried  to  Hellenize  their 
Jewish  subjects  in  both  religion  and  language.  They  ■ 
intruded  High  Priests  into  the  Temple  for  bribes 
and  forbade  the  practice  of  the  Jewish  religion.. 
The  revolt  of  the  Makkabees  followed,  and  finally' 
John  Hyrkan,  the  High  Priest  of  the  Asmonean 
family,  took  the  title  of  King  of  the  Jews,  and  made 
Palestine  a  sovereign  state. 

Intercourse  with  the  Greek  heathens  of  Syria  had 
lessened  the  hold  of  the  Jewish  faith  among  the 
Hebrews.  A  school,  or  sect,  arose,  under  the  name 
of  Sadducees,  which  rejected  the  traditional  law  ac- 
cepted by  the  Jewish  people  from  immemorial  time 
and  claimed  that  the  text  of  the  Pentateuch  alone, 
as  interpreted  by  themselves,  embodied  the  whole 
Law.  This  teaching  was  acceptable  to  Hyrkan,  who 
desired  to  lessen  the  influence  of  the  Sanhedrin,  then 
practically  the  Parliament  of  the  nation,  and  he  be- 
came a  Sadducee.  He  persecuted  the  traditionalist 
members  of  the  Sanhedrin,  in  whose  stead  he  put 
Sadducees,  and  as  he  was  also  High  Priest,  his  office 
became  supreme  in  every  part  of  religion.  The  suc- 
cessors of  John  Hyrkan   pursued   the  same  policy 


4         JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

toward  the  Pharisee  Rabbis,  and  when  the  Asmonean 
dynasty  was  succeeded  by  the  Idumaean  Herod,  the 
Sanhedrin  had  lost  its  power  as  a  political  factor  alto- 
gether, though  even  Herod  leaned  more  toward  the 
Sadducees  than  the  Pharisees,  whom  he  persecuted 
bitterly.  The  priestly  office  was  separated  from  the 
kingly,  but  the  High  Priests  continued  to  hold  Sad- 
ducean  doctrines.  Thus,  by  a  singular  combination, 
the  men  who  to  strangers  were  the  heads  of  religion 
were  heretics  to  the  orthodox  Jews  themselves. 

The  Rabbis  continued  to  hold  their  influence,  and 
were  accepted  by  the  bulk  of  the  people  as  their  re- 
ligious teachers  in  spite  of  kingly  persecution.  A 
number  of  the  Rabbis,  however,  especially  the  writers 
or  SopJicrim  (the  scribes  of  the  New  Testament) 
consented  to  serve  the  Sadducean  kings  and  priests 
in  the  administration  of  the  Law.  They  were  re- 
garded as  intermediate  between  the  Sadducees  and 
Pharisees.  By  their  influence  among  this  class,  the 
High  Priests  succeeded  in  controlling  the  Sanhedrin 
for  a  considerable  period.  Their  policy  was  to  con- 
centrate the  minds  of  the  people  on  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  as  the  very  centre  of  religion.  By  this 
they  increased  their  own  revenues  and  importance. 
This  special  importance  of  the  Temple  tended  to 
another  result.  It  intensified  the  local  nationalism 
and  tended  to  make  the  people  forget  the  wider 
brotherhood  of  man  in  the  local  ceremonialism  of 
the  Jewish  Temple  service.  Thus  Sadducean  princi- 
ples tended  to  make  the  Jewish  people  a  mere  tribe, 
which  could  have  no  national  existence  outside  of 
Palestine,  the  Holy  Land. 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST  5 

The  orthodox  or  Pharisee  teachers,  many  of  them 
drawn  from  Jews  born  in  other  lands,  taught  the 
broad  principles  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  and  lessened 
the  importance  of  both  the  Temple  and  the  Holy 
Land  as  elements  in  the  religious  life  of  the  people. 
The  High  Priests  of  the  Temple  represented  the 
narrow  localism  of  Palestine  and  had  a  contempt  for 
abstract  dogma.  The  Presidents  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
or  Patriarchs,  were  the  heads  of  the  masters  teaching 
Jews  of  every  land.  The  High  Priests  perished  with 
the  destruction  of  the  Temple  by  Titus.  The  Pa- 
triarchs of  the  Sanhedrin  continued  to  exist  as 
recognized  religious  heads  of  the  Jewish  people 
down  to  the  last  Emperor  of  the  Roman  world, 
Theodosius.  The  man  who  first  made  this  office 
hereditary  and  defined  its  powers  clearly  against 
priestly  usurpation  was  Hillel. 

Hillel  was  born  in  Babylon  among  the  Jewish 
colony  which  had  remained  there  when  the  "rem- 
nant of  Israel"  was  restored  to  its  native  land  by 
Cyrus.  The  Babylonian  Jews  counted  many  of  the 
noblest  in  blood  of  the  race,  and  Hillel's  parents, 
though  poor,  traced  descent  from  David.1  He 
was  advanced  in  life,  forty  years  old,  when  he  left 
Babylon  to  study  deeply  the  Law  in  the  famous 
schools  of  Jerusalem,  which  drew  students  from 
many  lands  to  learn.  Herod  then  ruled  in  Palestine 
as  a  subject-king  of  Rome.  The  persecution  to 
which  the  Pharisee  Rabbis  had  been  subjected  had 
ceased  for  a  while,  and  the  more  famous  Rabbis 
taught  in  peace,  even  if  the  Sadducean  High  Priests 
controlled  by  force  or  bribery  the  decisions  of  the 


6         JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

national  Assembly.  Two  famous  masters,  Shemaiah 
and  Abtalion,  were  recognized  by  the  faithful  in 
Israel  as  the  wisest  amongst  the  traditional  teachers, 
and  to  their  school  Hillel  came  to  learn  the  precepts 
of  the  Law. 

He  was  poor  when  he  came.  He  had  a  rich 
brother  in  Jerusalem,  but  he  declined  his  aid  when 
proffered,8  and  preferred  to  support  himself  and 
pay  the  small  admission  fee  required  at  the  school 
by  daily  labor.  He  fully  accepted  the  rabbinical 
maxim,  "it  is  better  to  live  by  flaying  abandoned 
carcases  than  by  beggary."  He  went  out  daily  to 
gather  firewood  in  the  forest  near,  which  he  sold  in 
the  market.  The  fee  for  entrance  to  the  school  was 
half  a  copper  shekel.  Hillel  regulated  his  labor  so 
that  when  a  shekel  was  earned  for  each  day,  he  gave 
the  rest  of  his  time  to  the  studies  of  the  school.  The 
other  half  defrayed  his  scanty  food.3  At  times  he 
went  two  or  three  days  without  any  in  his  thirst  for 
knowledge. 

His  example  was  not  a  solitary  one  among  the 
Jewish  students  of  his  time.  Many  of  the  most 
eminent  Rabbis  earned  their  bread  as  artisans  while 
giving  their  energies  to  the  study  or  teaching  of  the 
Law.  The  Priests  of  the  Temple  were  rich  and 
honored.  The  teachers  of  the  Law  often  had  to 
struggle  for  the  necessaries  of  life."  Honest  poverty 
was  no  reproach  among  their  class. 

It  is  told  of  Hillel  that  one  day,  when  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  college  was  to  deliver  an  important  lec- 
ture, he  lacked  the  half-shekel  to  pay  the  doorkeeper. 
He  mounted  the  flat  roof  of  the  building  and  listened 


HILLEL,    THE    FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST  7 

at  a  window  which  looked  into  the  hall  below.  It 
was  evening  and  bitterly  cold,  but  the  student  for- 
got everything  in  listening  to  the  words  of  wisdom 
which  flowed  from  the  great  Rabbi's  lips.  He  grew 
cold  and  was  unable  to  move  when  the  lecture  ended. 
He  fell  asleep  at  last  and  snow  came  on,  which  cov- 
ered his  body  with  a  mantle  of  white.  On  the  next 
morning,  which  was  the  Sabbath,  the  students 
gathered  early  to  hear  the  morning  sermon.  They 
saw  the  window  darkened  by  the  lifeless  body,  and 
they  carried  it  into  the  room.  They  tried  to  revive 
Hillel,  but  there  was  no  fire,  and  the  Law  forbade 
kindling  one  on  the  Sabbath  Day.  The  question 
whether  it  was  lawful  to  break  it  in  such  a  case  was 
keenly  debated,  but  the  Masters  settled  it  by  declar- 
ing the  rule,  "This  man  deserves  that  the  Sabbath 
law  be  suspended  in  his  behalf."  5  When  he  recov- 
ered and  told  his  story  they  commanded  that  thence- 
forth he  should  pay  no  entrance  fee.6 

Independence  and  perseverance  were  shown  by 
this  conduct,  and  to  these  Hillel  added  a  keen  and 
lofty  intellect.  He  profited  above  all  the  other  stu- 
dents by  the  lessons  of  his  Masters  and  after  some 
years  he  received  the  rabbinical  degree.  He  then 
returned  to  his  native  land,  where  he  was  received 
with  honors  by  the  old  Jewish  population,  and  there 
he  passed  some  years  teaching. 

He  felt  drawn  back  to  Jerusalem  by  the  love  of  in- 
tercourse with  the  learned  and  perhaps,  also,  with  a 
secret  ambition  of  becoming  a  leader  of  the  people. 
If  so,  it  was  gratified  beyond  his  hopes.7  The  San- 
hedrin  had  been  filled  with  incompetent  men  after 


8         JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

the  death  of  Shemaiah  and  Abtalion.  They  were 
recognized  by  the  people  as  faithful  guardians  of 
the  oral  law,  but  when  they  were  gone  none  was 
found  who  could  command  the  same  confidence  or 
even  remember  the  text  of  their  decisions,  which 
were  the  undoubted  law  of  Israel  to  all  believers. 
Two  Rabbis,  the  Sons  of  Bethyrah,  of  high  family 
but  little  learning,  held  the  offices  of  President  and 
Supreme  Judge,  but  they  were  unable  through 
ignorance  to  decide  many  of  the  questions  put  to 
them.  Hillel  gained  admission  to  the  Sanhedrin  and 
gradually  won  respect  by  his  profound  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  points  of  the  oral  law.  At  length 
a  crisis  came.  A  point  of  religious  observance  had 
to  be  settled  which,  small  as  it  appears  in  modern 
eyes,  was  of  vital  importance  to  religious  Jews.  The 
First  Day  of  the  Passover  in  a  certain  year  fell  imme- 
diately after  a  Sabbath,  and  the  question  was  how  to 
reconcile  the  laws,  one  of  which  commanded  the 
slaying  of  the  Paschal  lamb  before  Passover,  and  the 
other  that  forbade  any  slaying  on  the  Sabbath.  The 
party  spirit  between  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  the 
sticklers  for  the  letter  of  the  Pentateuch  as  the  only 
law,  and  the  teachers  who  maintained  the  value  and 
necessity  of  tradition,  gave  the  question  an  impor- 
tance that  may  seem  incomprehensible  to  modern 
minds.  It  was  not  so  to  the  Jewish  people.  They 
regarded  any  violation  of  the  Law  as  among  the 
worst  evils  that  can  befall  man,  and  here  was  a  point 
in  which  either  of  two  necessary  courses  seemed  to 
involve  such  a  violation.  The  people  murmured 
against    the    ignorance   of   the  Council  and   asked, 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST  9 

"Are  there,  then,  no  Judges  in  Israel  to  tell  us  what 
is  the  law  so  that  we  may  not  sin?  " 

The  Sadducee  Rabbis  of  the  High  Priest's  fac- 
tion were  confounded.  They  had  claimed  that  the 
Scripture  alone  was  the  sole  guide  for  the  law,  and 
here  the  Scripture  required  two  courses  to  be  fol- 
lowed, each  of  which  violated  the  other.  The  Phari- 
sees proclaimed  tradition  as  the  guide,  but  none 
knew  the  traditional  law  on  this  point.  Hillel  did. 
He  rose  and  declared  the  law  required  that  the 
Passover  observance  take  precedence  over  the  Sab- 
bath Day.  At  first  he  was  scoffed  at  as  a  foreigner,8 
but  the  scoffers  ceased  when  he  quoted  the  exact  de- 
cision on  this  case  of  his  former  teachers,  Shemaiah 
and  Abtalion.  Their  authority  was  recognized  by 
all,  and  the  question  was  settled  to  the  delight  both 
of  the  Pharisees  and  the  whole  people.  Even  the 
Sons  of  Bethyrah,  wearied,  perhaps,  of  the  difficulties 
of  their  position,  voluntarily  laid  down  their  office, 
and  the  Babylonian  Hillel  was  chosen  President  of 
the  Sanhedrin  "to  restore  peace  in  Israel,"  as  the 
Talmud  says.9 

His  election  was  a  triumph  for  the  Pharisees,  who 
had  long  been  overborne  by  their  opponents,  backed 
by  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  Sadducean  High 
Priests.  It  was  also  a  triumph  for  the  element 
among  the  nation  which  opposed  the  narrow-spirited 
nationalism  of  Palestine.  Hillel  was  not  even  born 
in  Palestine.  His  teachers,  whose  authority  had 
saved  the  reputation  of  the  Assembly  among  the 
people,  were  not  even  of  Jewish  race,  but  of  the 
"  Proselytes  of  Righteousness"    from  the  Gentiles. 


IO      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

The  election  of  Hillel  was,  then,  a  victory  not  only 
over  the  Sadducees,  but  over  the  whole  spirit  of 
narrow  tribalism  which  would  confine  privileges  to 
the  natives  of  Palestine. 

Hillel  himself  recognized  this  fact,  and  his  quick 
intelligence  and  patient  tact  enabled  him  to  use  the 
power  thus  placed  in  his  hand  to  the  fullest  degree 
in  exalting  the  dignity  of  the  Presidential  office. 
The  court  party  in  the  Assembly  had  been  forced 
to  agree  in  Hillel's  election.  They  tried  to  offset 
the  power  of  this  foreigner  by  giving  him  a  col- 
league who  represented  Palestine  nationalism  of  the 
narrowest  kind.  They  chose  for  Chief  Judge,  the 
second  officer  of  the  Sanhedrin,  a  Rabbi  named  Sham- 
mai,  famous  alike  for  his  learning  and  his  haughty 
temper.  This  man,  who  was  attached  by  many  ties 
to  the  Sadducean  faction,  it  was  hoped,  might  re- 
duce the  power  of  Hillel  to  naught  in  the  Assembly. 

The  position  of  the  latter  was  assailed  by  Sham- 
mai  with  the  utmost  bitterness,  though  under  the 
regular  rabbinical  form.  As  Chief  Judge  he  de- 
lighted in  reversing  decisions  rendered  by  the  Pres- 
ident, and  holding  his  sayings  up  to  scorn.  These 
assaults  Hillel  treated  with  a  calmness  which 
shamed  even  the  partisans  of  his  rival.  He  treated 
Shammai  with  scrupulous  politeness  and  extended 
the  same  courtesy  to  his  decisions.  The  curious 
saying  recorded  in  the  Talmud  that  both  these  rivals 
spoke  the  "words  of  the  living  God  "  sounds  like  an 
utterance  of  Hillel.  His  work  was  for  something 
greater  than  wordy  victories. 

He   evidently    realized    that    the    Jewish    people 


HILLEL,   THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST         II 

would  not  long  remain  in  Palestine  under  existing 
conditions.  Exile  was  its  fate,  and  in  Babylon  Hillel 
had  seen  and  studied  how  the  law  of  Israel  might 
be  preserved  intact  even  though  the  chosen  people 
were  scattered  from  the  Holy  Land.  He  made  it  his 
task  to  prepare  the  popular  mind  for  the  impending 
changes.  As  a  means  to  this  end  he  increased  the 
dignity  of  the  office  with  which  he  was  clothed,  so 
as  to  make  it  greater  than  even  the  High  Priest's 
functions.  He  introduced  the  idea  of  Davidic  de- 
scent as  a  proper  qualification  for  the  head  of  the 
Assembly  of  Israel.  Hillel  himself  belonged  to  that 
family,  and,  besides  increasing  the  popular  venera- 
tion for  the  office,  this  new  idea  made  the  Presidency 
practically  hereditary  in  the  House  of  Hillel.  As 
the  High  Priest  was  of  the  House  of  Aaron  so  the 
President  of  the  Assembly,  a  descendant  of  the  great 
king,  was  recognized  as  the  Nasi,  or  Prince,  in  Israel. 
Hillel  had  no  ill-feeling  against  Rome;  at  least  not 
in  the  same  degree  as  the  natives  of  Palestine.  The 
Heathens  had  not  affected  him  personally  nor  his 
family.  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy  Land  were  to 
the  Jews  in  Babylon  little  more  than  a  memory,  a 
religious  sentiment,  and  re-awakened  only  when 
they  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  land  of  their  fathers. 
The  Hebrews  in  Babylon  were  happier  than  those  in 
the  Holy  Land.  From  a  religious  point,  Hillel  was 
satisfied ;  the  Land  of  the  Lord  was  indestructible, 
the  faith  as  such  was  not  affected  by  dynastic  changes. 
He  and  his  people  had  lived  and  prayed  in  Babylon 
with  the  same  fervor  to  the  same  God,  as  those 
who    lived    in    Jerusalem.      If   the   Commonwealth 


12       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

was  threatened  in  its  religious  life,  it  was  wiser 
to  conciliate  than  to  oppose  the  enemy  of  the 
Lord.  Love  is  a  greater  factor  in  securing  the  na- 
tional and  religious  stability  of  a  people  than  hate. 
God's  chiefest  law  is  love,  and  this  the  Jew  could 
carry  with  him  to  the  ends  of  the  world.  For  this 
neither  Temple  nor  Palestine  was  indispensable. 
What  the  Jew  needed  was  a  clearer  understanding 
of  the  will  of  God.  Imbued  with  these  ideas,  Hillel 
advocated  kindlier  feelings  towards  the  Heathens. 
If  the  Jews  would  treat  them  with  consideration 
they  might  remain  undisturbed  in  their  national  ex- 
istence. Thus  thought  and  acted  the  foreigner 
Hillel.  It  was,  therefore,  quite  natural  that  the 
Nationalist  party,  whose  head  was  Shammai,  op- 
posed the  conciliatory  measures  of  the  President. 
But  in  order  to  maintain  this  policy,  Hillel  needed 
a  powerful  party  behind  him,  a  party  of  wealth  which 
must  be  favored  to  make  it  stable  and  responsive. 

Here,  then,  was  the  contention  of  the  Nationalists. 
They  desired  to  foster  sentimental  patriotism  among 
the  masses,  and  they  frowned  upon  the  attempt  to 
create  a  select  party  of  aristocratic  diplomatists  in 
opposition  to  themselves,  who  held  sway  over  the 
affairs  of  the  nation  for  so  long. 

But  the  same  determination  which  characterized 
Hillel's  student  life  was  now  manifest  in  his  life 
and  work  as  President  of  the  Assembly.  Paving 
the  way  for  the  future,  he  instructed  his  disciples 
how  to  act  in  coming  events.  He  put  it  to  them 
clearly  and  unmistakably.  He  taught  them  the 
lessons   of   universal   love,   unhindered    by  national 


IIILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST         13 

sentiment,  race,  or  creed.  The  burden  of  this  mis- 
sion he  placed  upon  the  shoulders  of  his  favorite  and 
famous  disciple,  Rabbi  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai,  whom 
he  taught  to  look  upon  learning  and  the  general  edu- 
cation of  the  people  as  of  higher  worth  than  the 
Temple.  This  principle  was  expressed  by  Hillel's 
descendant,  Judah  the  Prince,  in  emphatic  terms 
two  centuries  later:  "Disturb  not  the  training  of 
the  young,  not  even  for  the  sake  of  rebuilding  the 
Temple,"  says  he.10 

If  Hillel's  policy  was  marked  by  acts  which  seem- 
ingly favored  the  rich  man  against  the  poor,  it  must 
be  put  to  the  policy  rather  than  to  his  character, 
which  was  pure  and  above  reproach.  That,  aided 
by  those  whom  he  thus  favored,  he  became  very 
wealthy  must  not  be  accounted  a  fault  to  reflect 
upon  his  honesty  as  President  of  the  Sanhedrim  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Presidency  was  nat- 
urally supported  in  magnificent  style,  and  that  Hillel, 
though  personally  very  frugal,  spent  vast  sums  for 
the  support  of  others  and  the  laying  of  the  founda- 
tion for  the  grandeur  of  his  house,  which  should  not 
fall,  though  the  walls  of  the  Temple  and  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  crumbled  to  dust.  His  was  not  the  life  of 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  who  came  with  a  mission  of  sal- 
vation, the  prerequisite  to  which  was  self-abnega- 
tion and  a  total  reliance  upon  the  Father  for  all 
things.  And  yet  Hillel  was  laying  the  foundation 
on  which  the  work  of  Jesus  could  more  easily 
rise.  Hillel  was  paving  the  way  for  a  universal 
faith  unhampered  by  petty  national  affairs.  He  was 
intensely  human;   had  he  been    otherwise,  had  he 


14       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

employed  other  than  the  simplest  and  most  natural 
means  for  his  work,  who  knows  how  many  centuries 
would  have  elapsed  ere  the  civilizing  influence  of 
Judaism  in  the  guise  of  Christianity  could  have  made 
itself  felt.  None  before  Hillel  ever  attempted  such 
a  policy.  He  was  the  founder  and  originator — not 
of  the  universality  of  the  faith,  but  of  HOW  TO  MAKE 
THE  FAITH  UNIVERSAL. 

Withal  Hillel  was  not  a  reformer  in  a  modern 
sense.  He  did  not  deviate  a  jot  or  tittle  from  the 
law.  His  acts  stood  in  no  contrast  to  the  Mosaic 
Law,  not  even  his  "Prosbul  Act,"  of  which  we  shall 
speak  farther  on.  What  Hillel  attempted  was  in 
the  nature  of  a  warning  note  of  preparation  for  the 
future  in  case  of  calamity,  so  that,  when  driven 
from  the  land  of  their  fathers,  the  learned  men  in 
Israel  should  carry  along  the  indestructible  seed  of 
the  sacred  faith  and  plant  it  upon  foreign  soil.  De- 
pendent upon  none  but  God,  they  should  be  ready 
to  go  whithersoever  His  finger  pointed.  Hillel 
wanted  them  prepared  to  teach  and  practise  love, 
charity,  humility,  prudence,  wisdom,  and  forbear- 
ance. That  Shammai  opposed  Hillel's  work  speaks 
for  the  power  thereof;  yet  it  casts  no  discredit 
upon  that  zealous  Nationalist  to  have  had  different, 
though  less  subtle,  ideas. 

In  matters  of  doctrine  Hillel  was  even  stricter 
than  his  opponent  Shammai,  but  when  it  came  to 
the  philosophy  of  life,  to  considerateness,  to  the 
spreading  of  Israel's  pure  religion  among  the  masses, 
even  amongst  non-Hebrews ;  when  it  came  to  answer- 
ing miscellaneous  questions  by  mockers,  scoffers,  and 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER    OF  CHRIST         1 5 

Heathens  where  the  peculiar  situation  demanded 
skill,  patience,  and  unruffled  temper,  so  that  the 
faith  and  its  adherents  might  stand  glorified  before 
the  world  ;  when  it  came  to  teaching  the  principles 
of  human  love  and  forbearance  by  precept  and 
practice,  then  Hillel  towered  above  his  antagonist 
as  the  lofty  cedar  above  the  gnarled  oak.  Then  all 
the  gifts  of  the  sage,  his.  amiability  and  divine  pa- 
tience came  into  play,  and  men  praised  his  name 
and  glorified  his  virtues. 

Hillel's  sayings  show  his  lofty  soul  as  much  as  his 
policy,  and  the  stories  in  the  Talmud,  legendary  as 
they  may  be,  always  tend  to  emphasize  the  latter. 

"Be  thou  of  the  disciples  of  Aaron,  who  loved 
peace  and  pursued  peace;  so  that  thou  love  man- 
kind, and  allure  them  to  the  study  of  the  Law."  " 

That  which  makes  the  character  of  Hillel  so  ad- 
mirable to  the  student  of  the  Talmud  is  the  almost 
total  absence  of  the  miraculous  in  his  work.  It 
seems  that  the  Talmudic  fabulists  felt  that  they 
dared  not  obscure  his  splendid  personality  by  petty 
fantastic  stories.  Did  they  understand  his  policy? 
Is  this  a  tacit  rebuke  to  Hillel's  application  of  nat- 
ural means  to  further  a  sublime  end?  There  is 
ground  for  both  suppositions.  But  thanks  be  to 
them,  whatever  their  intention,  for  the  clear-cut 
pictures  they  give  of  his  character  and  manner  of 
acting.  These  pictures  also  put  into  strong  relief 
the  nature  of  Shammai  and  the  policy  he  pursued. 

Once  a  Heathen,  says  the  Talmud,  came  to  Sham- 
mai and  said : 

"Rabbi,    I    desire  to  become  a  Jew;    but   I  care 


16       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

nothing  for  the  elucidations  of  the  Rabbis  and  the 
ordinances  of  the  Synagogue ;  I  care  but  for  the 
written  Law  of  Moses,  and  to  it  will  I  adhere." 

"Wouldst  thou,  a  Heathen,  despise  the  wisdom 
of  the  Rabbis?  Go  hence,  I  will  have  none  of  thee  !  " 
said  Shammai  angrily. 

,  The  Heathen  went  to  Hillel  and  repeated  his  re- 
quest.   The  Rabbi  looked  at  the  stranger  quizzically. 

"Dost  thou  know  aught  of  Hebrew?  "  he  asked. 

"Nothing  whatever,"  the  man  replied. 

There  was  a  fleeting  smile  on  Hillel's  face  as  he 
bade  the  man  be  seated. 

"I  will  teach  thee  the  Aleph-Beth  of  the  Hebrew 
language,"  he  said. 

It  was  a  simple  lesson,  merely  the  reading  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  at  which  Hillel  explained  that,  un- 
like the  Greek  and  Latin,  the  Hebrew  language  was 
always  read  from  right  to  left.  The  lesson  being 
over,  the  man  went  away  very  much  impressed,  and 
on  the  day  following  came  for  another  lesson,  which 
Hillel  started  by  reading  the  alphabet  from  left  to 
right. 

The  Heathen  was  puzzled. 

"Rabbi,"  said  he,  "thou  didst  say  yesterday  that 
Hebrew  is  read  from  right  to  left." 

"Then  thou  art  willing  to  accept  the  oral  explana- 
tion I  gave  yesterday  about  the  written  word  as  au- 
thentic for  to-day,  and  any  explanation  I  should 
give  thee  to-day  thou  wouldst  again  accept  with  the 
same  faith  for  to-morrow?  Why?  Because  thou  be- 
lievest  in  my  ability  to  teach  thee  the  hidden  mean- 
ing of  words  and  phrases.     Why,  then,  shouldst  thou 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST         \J 

reject  the  elucidations  and  ordinances  of  the  Rabbis, 
who  do  no  more  than  I  do  in  thy  case,  namely,  the 
explanation  of  the  written  word,  and  its  proper  ren- 
dition?" the  sage  replied. 

The  Heathen  saw  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  Hil- 
lel's  words  and  reverently  begged  for  admission  into 
the  congregation  of  Israel,  promising  to  adhere  to 
the  written  and  the  oral  laws  of  the  Hebrews.1' 

Hillel  has  some  pointed  utterances  against  those 
who  boasted  of  the  position  they  held  by  virtue  of 
their  names  as  priests  or  any  other  official  dignity. 
Also  against  those  who,  having  acquired  some 
knowledge,  made  it  a  means  for  sordid  ends.  "If  the 
Temple  is  destroyed,  where  will  be  your  official  dig- 
nity? If  you  are  despoiled  of  your  ill-gotten  wealth, 
what  good  will  your  sham  knowledge  do  you? '  To 
quote  his  own  words  : 

"Whosoever  aggrandizes  his  name  destroys  it; 
and  he  who  fails  to  increase  his  knowledge  of  the 
Law  shall  be  cut  off;  and  he  who  does  not  study  the 
Law  is  deserving  of  death  ;  and  he  who  serves  himself 
with  the  crown  of  the  Law,  will  be  consumed."  l3 

In  Hillel's  day  the  pomp  of  the  Temple,  the  high- 
priestly  office,  and  the  wealth  and  influence  of  the 
Jewish  aristocracy  appeared  alluring  to  some  ambi- 
tious Heathens,  who  not  infrequently  sought  Judaism 
with  these  ends  in  view.  Shammai,  who  hated  the 
foreign  element  in  general  and  the  Heathen  element 
in  particular,  frightened  away  such  applicants  with 
telling  harshness.  He  did  not  want  Crcthi  and  PlctJii 
in  the  congregation  of  Israel.  The  Jews  never  had 
any  use  for  this  class  of  people;  they  were  always  a 


18       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

hindrance  rather  than  a  help  to  the  development  of 
the  national  idea.  Moses  would  not  give  them 
equality  with  the  Israelites,  and  accorded  them  the 
position  of  slaves :  hewers  of  wood  and  carriers  of 
water;  and  even  then  they  caused  great  trouble. 
Such  was  the  position  taken  by  Shammai. 

Hillel  thought  differently.  The  Heathens'  ambi- 
tion, he  argued,  was  not  only  natural,  but  it  was 
encouraged  by  the  boastful  Jews  themselves.  But  in- 
stead of  treating  such  applicants  harshly  and  making 
enemies  of  them,  he  said,  treat  them  wisely ;  show 
them  the  way  to  salvation ;  make  them  meek  and 
humble;  let  them  see  the  real  beauties  of  the  faith 
and  they  will  embrace  it  for  its  own  sake.  In  this 
manner  you  will  not  only  serve  the  faith  in  the  pres- 
ent, but  you  may  secure  for  it  incalculable  benefits 
for  the  future. 

This  thought  is  clearly  illustrated  by  the  following 
story : 

Once,  says  the  Talmud,  a  Heathen  came  to  the 
house  of  Shammai,  and  said  to  him : 

"Rabbi,  I  desire  to  become  a  Jew  on  condition 
that  thou  make  me  a  High  Priest." 

Shammai  grew  very  wroth  at  such  a  demand,  and, 
threatening  the  man  with  his  long  staff,  he  cried : 

"Away,  thou  barbarian,  lest  I  chastise  thee  as 
thine  impudence  deserves !  An  infidel  cannot  become 
a  High  Priest,  nor  can  he  come  nigh  unto  the  Holy 
Place." 

However,  the  Heathen's  ambition  was  not  so 
easily  thwarted;  he  went  to  Hillel,  and  proffered 
the  same  demand. 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST         19 

"Thy  desire  is  not  extraordinary,  my  son,"  said 
the  sage;  "but  art  thou  sincere?" 

"I  am,"  said  the  Heathen. 

Hillel's  features  seemed  to  change;  he  became 
awfully  earnest. 

"Canst  thou  approach  the  Lord  God  of  Israel 
with  proper  reverence?  "  he  asked. 

"I  can,"  the  man  replied,  somewhat  subdued. 

"Ah,  but  knowest  thou  the  law  which  surrounds 
the  exalted  position  to  which  thou  aspirest?  "  Hillel 
asked  with  increased  solemnity. 

"I  know  it  not,  oh,  Rabbi,"  the  man  replied. 

"Knowest  not  the  Law?"  Hillel  cried  in  evident 
surprise;  "my  son,  the  position  of  a  High  Priest  is 
more  exalted  than  that  of  a  king,  and  even  a  king 
must  know  the  laws  of  his  land  ;  how  much  more  then 
is  it  incumbent  upon  the  High  Priest  who  stands  be- 
fore the  awful  sanctuary  of  the  Lord,  to  know  the 
laws  governing  the  approaches  to  the  sanctuary ! 
Now,  my  son,  listen.  This  is  one  of  the  laws:  'And 
the  stranger  who  cometh  nigh  (unto  the  altar  of  the 
Lord)  shall  die.'  "  " 

The  Heathen  turned  pale. 

'To  whom    doth    this   refer?'     he  asked,  trem- 
blingly. 

"Aye,  to  whom  doth  it  not  refer?  Even  David, 
the  king,  had  he  lived  and  dared  to  go  near  the  altar 
to  serve  the  offering,  would  have  merited  death," 
Hillel  rejoined. 

"Your  laws  are  strict,"  said  the  Heathen,  "but 
in  them  is  pleasantness.  My  desire  for  the  exalted 
position  was  wrong,  but  my  wish  to  be  of  your  faith 


20      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

is  now  keener  than  before ;  pray,  Rabbi,  admit  me 
into  the  congregation  of  the  Jews." 

Thereupon  Hillel  readily  accepted  the  applicant 
and  put  him  under  the  care  of  his  disciples  for  in- 
struction and  ultimate  admission  into  the  covenant 
of  Abraham.16 

Such  marvellous  wisdom  could  not  fail  to  bring  the 
Law  and  its  adherents  into  great  respect  among  the 
Heathens.  But  even  greater  was  its  effect  upon 
the  Hebrew  people.  The  Babylonian  who,  without 
financial  or  political  backing,  but  by  mere  merit, 
had  become  the  head  of  the  Sanhedrin,  and  titular 
prince,  gave  to  them  a  higher  conception  of  their  own 
faith  and  national  aspiration.  With  Hillel  rose  an 
appreciation  of  the  laws  and  the  possibility  of  being 
released  from  the  burden  of  dead-letter  worship.  He 
also  brought  a  clearer  knowledge  of  tradition ;  for 
he  had  sat  at  the  feet  of  the  masters,  Shemaiah  and 
Abtalion,  and  his  keen  spirit  had  penetrated  the 
greatest  depths  of  their  discourses;  he  lost  no  hint 
which  their  words  implied.  He  treasured  their 
teaching  regarding  the  relation  between  the  Law 
and  the  needs  of  human  life.  The  words  came  to 
him  as  a  light  from  heaven,  "should  one  peril  his 
life  for  the  Law,  the  Law  shall  be  turned  to  save 
his  life."  19  Was  not  in  this  a  hint  for  reform,  a 
point  whence  to  start  a  form  of  elucidation  of  the 
Law,  which  shall  become,  as  he  himself  said,  "allur- 
ing"? Certainly.  None  before  him  saw  it  so 
clearly,  and  none  before  him  set  to  work  so  syste- 
matically to  make  the  Law  of  Moses  a  responsive 
element,    an    active    principle,    and    to    define    the 


HILLEL,    THE    FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST        21 

regulations  the  ignorant  application  of  which 
wrought  unspeakable  harm  to  the  people. 

Hillel  did  not  care  so  much  for  great  scholars  as 
for  good  men.  One  who  knew  all  the  laws  and  kept 
none  was  infinitely  more  culpable  than  one  who 
knew  none  at  all.  A  man's  salvation  depended 
not  upon  his  knowledge  of  every  tittle  of  the 
law,  but  in  the  proper  exercise  thereof.  Nor  did 
he  conceal  his  preference  for  the  kernel  to  the 
shell,  and  when  a  Heathen,  probably  to  test  the 
Rabbi's  patience,  asked  to  be  taught  all  the  laws 
of  the  Hebrews  while  he  would  stand  on  one  foot, 
the  sage  did  not  drive  him  away  as  Shammai  did. 
He  took  that  mocker  by  the  hand  and  spoke  to  him 
gently. 

"My  son,"  said  he,  "to  be  a  good  Jew  thou 
needest  to  know  but  one  principle,  and  that  I  can 
teach  thee  in  less  time  than  thou  requirest.  That 
which  is  hateful  unto  thee,  do  not  unto  thy  neigh- 
bor. This  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Mo- 
saic religion :  all  the  rest  is  mere  commentary ;  go 
and  live  up  to  that."  " 

Wonderfully  enlightened,  the  erstwhile  scoffer  be- 
came an  adorer;  he  studied  the  lore  and  the  laws  of 
the  Hebrews  and  became  a  convert. 

In  sooth  the  times  and  the  conditions  of  society 
in  Palestine  were  such  that  a  powerful,  equipoised 
factor  was  needed  to  stand  between  the  stubborn  ad- 
herents of  the  dead  letter  of  the  law,  and  those  He- 
brews who  affected  Roman  manners  and  denied  the 
Law  altogether,  and  were  even  ashamed  of  being 
called  Hebrews.     To  break  down  the  barrier  erected 


22       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

by  stiff-necked  zealots,  and  to  bring  back  into  the 
fold  those  stray  sheep  of  Israel,  whom  folly  and  a 
contempt  for  the  bigots  had  driven  away,  was  an- 
other aim  of  Hillel's  activity. 

Among  the  first  acts  of  his  administration  was  his 
"Prosbul  Act,"  which  was  designed  to  protect  the 
money-lenders  as  well  as  the  borrowers  during  the 
"Year   of    Release."       For   the   man    who   held    a 
mortgage  on  another  man's  property  was  forced  to 
release  it  on  the  first  day  of  the  seventh  year.     If 
the  mortgageor  was  a  dishonest  man,  he  simply  re- 
fused payment,  and  the  mortgagee  lost  his  capital. 
Thus  people   resorted  to   all  manner  of    fraud,   in 
which  they  were  virtually  assisted  by  the  law.     The 
money  lenders,  to  protect  themselves,  would  either 
charge  exorbitant  rates  of  interest  or  refuse  to  lend 
money  altogether.     Ordinarily  this  would  not  have 
been  such  a  great  misfortune,  but  there  were  times 
when  the  people   had  to  have  money  or  feel  the 
scourge  of  the  tyrant.     The  first  year  after  the  ac- 
cession to  the  throne  of  Herod,  was  a  Year  of  Re- 
lease ;  the  people  had  been  drained  to  the  last  drop 
by  exorbitant  taxes  the  preceding  year,  which  had 
been  followed  by  bad  crops.     The  people  then  had 
neither  food  nor  money  to  buy  it.     They  took  their 
last  possessions  and  went  to  the  money-lenders ;  but 
these  refused  to  advance  a  single  coin :  they  were 
afraid  to  lose  their  money  at  the  coming  Year  of 
Release. 

Hillel  came  to  the  assistance  of  both  parties  by 
means  of  the  "Script,"  which  was  in  the  nature  of  a 
promissory  note  and  which  secured  to  the  lender  his 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST        23 

money  even  after  the  Year  of  Release ;  for  though 
the  property  reverted  to  the  borrower,  the  lender 
could  sue  on  the  "Script  "  and  collect  his  money  by 
due  process  of  law  in  judgment  and  execution.,H 

After  the  publication  of  this  Act,  the  people 
heaved  a  sigh  of  relief,  and  though  it  favored  the 
lender  it  gave  a  fair  chance  also  to  the  borrower. 

Another  injurious  law  was  that  which  provided 
that  a  man,  having  sold  a  house  and  desiring  to  buy 
it  back,  which  he  could  do  within  a  year,  was  forced 
to  pay  the  original  purchase  price  personally  into 
the  hand  of  the  one  in  possession.  But  the  latter, 
not  desiring  to  give  up  the  property,  often  hid 
himself  on  the  last  day  and  thus  defeated  the  laws 
of  equity. 

Hillel  made  an  act  which  provided  that  the  origi- 
nal owner  had  the  right  to  deposit  the  purchase 
money  in  a  court  of  justice  on  the  last  day  of  the 
year  within  which  the  property  was  sold,  whereupon 
he  could  take  immediate  possession.10 

Another  evil  was  found  in  the  borrowing  and  lend- 
ing of  grain  at  seed-time.  Poor  crops  frequently 
forced  the  people  to  borrow  grain  for  food  or  seed, 
which  the  rich  merchants  readily  gave ;  but  prior  to 
the  expiration  of  the  debt  the  lenders  combined  to 
raise  the  price  of  grain  and  demanded  returns  equiva- 
lent to  the  increased  rates. 

Hillel  remedied  this  by  providing  that  cereals  shall 
be  returned  or  paid  for  at  the  price  it  sold  for  on  the 
day  it  was  loaned.30 

And  so  he  went  on  instituting  one  reform  after 
another;  making  every  Mosaic  Law  luminous  by  the 


24       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

brilliancy  of  his  matchless  intellect.  He  was,  in 
sooth,  a  second  Ezra,  and,  like  him,  he  reconstructed 
the  Law  of  Moses,  making  it  a  moving  force  for  all 
time." 

His  knowledge  was  universal ;  embracing  many 
languages  and  the  sciences  of  botany,  medicine,  as- 
tronomy, mathematics,  and  geography.  Speaking 
in  the  language  of  the  Talmud  :  "There  was  no  phil- 
osophy and  no  tongue  which  he  had  not  learned ;  he 
knew  the  speech  of  the  mountains,  hills,  valleys, 
trees,  plants,  and    that  of   the  domestic   and   wild 

•  1  »  f    33 

animals. 

As  was  the  man,  so  was  his  domestic  life,  happy  to 
the  fullest  measure ;  for  his  wife  was  as  lovable  and 
tender-hearted  as  he.  The  thought  of  coming  evil  to 
the  nation  which,  as  we  have  indicated,  mainly  di- 
rected his  policy,  never  extended  to  his  own  house ; 
nor  did  it  manifest  itself  in  his  home  life.  Both 
were  fortified  by  walls  of  the  purest  faith  and  wis- 
dom. He  feared  neither  the  present  nor  the  future. 
The  Talmud  illustrates  this  beautifully  and  signifi- 
cantly. Hillel  was  on  the  way  to  his  home,  when 
a  great  noise  suddenly  reached  his  ear.  "I  am  cer- 
tain," said  he,  "that  it  is  not  in  my  house  [that 
no  misfortune  has  befallen  me  or  mine].""  This 
pure  optimism  ruled  all  his  words  and  acts,  and  no 
amount  of  personal  inconvenience  was  ever  great 
enough  to  disturb  this  wonderful  equanimity. 

One  day  a  very  distinguished  man  came  to  see 
him;  Hillel  asked  his  wife  to  prepare  a  dinner — 
probably  commensurate  with  the  dignity  of  the 
guest.     Hour  upon  hour  passed,  still  the  dinner  was 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST        2$ 

not  brought.  Hillel  showed  not  the  least  impa- 
tience; he  kept  his  guest  in  good  spirits  by  de- 
lightful conversation,  and  at  length  Hillel's  wife 
appeared  with  the  servants  and  the  steaming  food. 

"We  are  late  to-day,"  said  Hillel  smilingly. 

"The  food  was  ready  long  ere  now,"  said  she, 
"but  a  poor  and  hungry  man  came  and  asked  for 
something  to  eat  and  I  gave  it  to  him,  and  that  ne- 
cessitated the  preparation  of  other  food." 

"My  dear,"  said  Hillel,  "thy  good  heart  has 
prompted  thee  to  do  the  right  thing;  for  charity  is 
one  of  the  noblest  virtues,  and  the  Lord  is  more 
pleased  with  thy  work  than  any  other."  " 

His  patience  was  proverbial.  It  was  greater,  finer, 
nobler  than  that  of  Job;  for  Hillel  was  not  called 
upon  to  contend  with  fate,  but  with  the  follies  of 
man.  But,  though  tried  beyond  the  ordinary  en- 
durance which  characterizes  wise  men,  he  never  lost 
his  temper.  This  admirable  quality  is  praised  by 
Rabbis  who  rightly  place  Hillel  above  Shammai. 
"Let  every  man  always  be  as  meek  as  Hillel  and  not 
high-tempered  like  Shammai.""  In  illustration  of 
Hillel's  meekness  the  following  story  is  given : 

On  a  Friday,  while  Hillel  was  in  his  bath  in  honor 
of  the  Sabbath,  a  man  called  to  see  him.  Hillel 
quickly  dried  himself,  put  on  his  mantle,  and,  going 
into  the  reception-room,  asked  the  man  what  he 
desired. 

"I  have  a  question  to  ask,"  said  the  visitor. 

"Ask,  my  son,"  rejoined  Hillel. 

"Why  have  the  Babylonians  round  heads?  ' 

"Thou  hast  asked  an  important  question,"  said 


26      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Hillel,  evidently  unaffected  by  the  irreverent  insinu- 
ation. "Because  the  Babylonians  lack  skilful  mid- 
wives." 

The  man  went  away  without  thanking  him,  and 
after  an  hour  returned  and  roughly  called  for  Hillel. 
"What  desirest  thou?"  the  latter  asked. 
"I  have  a  question,"  said  the  man. 
"Ask  it,  my  son,"  said  Hillel. 
"Why  are  the  Tharmudians  cross-eyed? ': 
"Thou  hast  asked  an  important  question,"  said 
Hillel,  "because  they  live  in  a  sandy  country." 

The  man  went  away  as  before,  and  after  an  hour's 
absence  returned,  crying:  "Is  Hillel  there?  Is  Hil- 
lel there? " 

"He  is  here,"  said  Hillel  pleasantly;  "what  de- 
sirest thou  of  him? " 

"I  have  a  question  to  ask." 
"Ask,  my  son." 

"Why  have  the  Africans  flat  feet?  " 
"Thou  hast  asked  an  important  question  ;  because 
the    Africans    are    obliged    to    pass    through    great 
swamps,"  was  Hillel's  reply. 

"I  have  many  more  questions  to  ask,"  said  the 
man  tentatively. 

"Ask  them,  my  son,"  said  Hillel. 
"But  I  fear  thou  wilt  become  angry,"  the  man 
remarked. 

Hillel  drew  his  mantle  closer  and  sat  down. 
"Ask  all  the  questions  thou  hast,  my  son;  I  will 
listen,"  he  said. 

"Art  thou  Hillel  whom  they  call  the  Prince  in 
Israel?  "  the  man  asked. 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST        2J 

"I  am  Hillel." 

"Then  may  there  be  none  more  like  thee  in 
Israel!  "  the  man  cried. 

"Wherefore  this  wish,  my  son?" 

"Because  I  have  this  day  lost  four  hundred  gold 
pieces  on  thine  account;  I  wagered  that  I  could 
make  thee  angry,"  the  man  explained. 

"My  son,  thou  mightest  lose  many  hundreds  of 
gold  pieces  ere  Hillel  would  give  way  to  anger."  '" 

He  was  scrupulous  in  matters  of  personal  cleanli- 
ness, bathing  daily,  often  several  times  during  the 
day. 

"If  man  taketh  such  care  of  statues  which  he 
washeth  and  cleanseth  from  dust,  though  these 
statues  are  but  the  images  of  mortals,  how  much 
more  eagerly  should  a  man  attend  to  the  cleanliness 
of  his  person,  which  was  created  in  the  image  of 
the  divine!  "  he  often  said." 

"Man  should  be  clean  so  as  not  to  offend  his 
guest,"  he  once  said  to  his  disciples. 

"What  guest?  "  they  asked. 

"The  soul,"  the  Master  replied.  "The  soul  is 
man's  most  cherished  guest;  within  us  to-day,  it 
may  be  with  God  to-morrow,  and  think  of  it,  my 
children,  if  the  soul  should  say  to  God  that  it  had 
lodged  in  an  unclean  dwelling."  38 

None  surpassed  him  in  humility;  not  even  in  the 
days  of  his  rising  fame,  a  period  when  students  ac- 
quiring a  certain  degree  of  recognition  are  apt  to  be 
vain  and  presumptuous.  Hillel  was  always  meek 
and  polite,  ready  to  do  a  man  service,  no  matter  how 
trifling  or  how  great.      If  a  man  needed  a  service  to 


28       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

which  he  was  used,  but  owing  to  reverses  in  his  for- 
tune was  unable  to  procure,  he  would  never  go  with- 
out it  when  Hillel  happened  to  be  near.  He  either 
hired  the  services  of  another,  or,  if  he  happened  to 
be  without  ready  money,  would  do  it  himself. 

It  was  one  of  Hillel's  principles  to  prevent  humil- 
iation of  any  person,  particularly  of  impoverished 
nobles,  who,  he  held,  suffered  more  keenly  than 
others  when  they  had  to  appear  in  public  and  could 
not  afford  the  means  their  former  position  so  readily 
gave  them.  Such  people  were  Hillel's  particular 
care,  and  he  humored  their  wants  to  the  smallest 
degree.  The  Talmud  contains  a  story  in  illustration 
of  this  feature  in  Hillel's  character. 

A  certain  impoverished  noble  who  used  to  have  a 
"crier  "  run  in  front  of  his  carriage  complained  that 
he  could  now  ill  afford  it.  Hillel  at  once  called  a 
"crier,"  and  engaged  him  for  immediate  service. 
Some  days  later  Hillel  saw  the  noble  driving,  but, 
alas,  without  a  "crier."  Hillel  examined  his  then 
slender  purse  and  found  that  he  had  not  the  price 
for  a  crier's  service.  Without  a  second  thought, 
Hillel  ran  in  front  of  the  noble  and  performed  the 
service  of  "crier." 

Thus  by  the  force  of  intellectuality  and  personal 
service  Hillel  gradually  prepared  the  Jews,  who 
stood  at  the  threshold  of  indefinite  exile,  to  bear 
the  great  burden  which  misfortune,  deserved  or 
otherwise,  put  upon  them.  He  wanted  them  pre- 
pared to  go  into  the  world  and  act  so  that,  though 
assimilated,  they  might  yet  retain  the  power  to  sway 
man  by  the  living  word.    • 


HILLEL,    THE   FORERUNNER   OF   CHRIST        29 

"Be  thou  not  dressed  among  the  naked,  nor  naked 
among  the  dressed;  sit  not  when  others  stand,  and 
stand  not  when  others  sit ;  weep  not  when  others  laugh, 
and  laugh  not  when  others  weep ;  attempt  no  changes 
with  the  customs  of  those  with  whom  you  dwell."  " 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  he  was  possessed  of 
exquisite  tact,  and  had  he  lived  half  a  century  later 
who  knows  but  that  this  one  amiable  intellectual 
giant  might  have  averted  the  great  calamity  which 
befell  the  Temple  and  the  city  of  Jerusalem? 

A  great  deal  more  might  be  written  about  the  var- 
ious disputes  between  Hillel  and  Shammai.  This, 
however, would  but  repeat  what  we  have  already  said, 
namely,  that  Hillel  towered  above  the  men  of  his  time 
an  immeasurable  height,  and  that  he  was  the  actual 
founder  of  Judaism  as  it  appeared  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple,  and  that  he  was  practically  a  new 
Moses  unto  the  Jews.  The  former  gave  the  Law, 
the  latter  made  that  law  a  vital  force  for  all  time. 
Hillel's  life  and  work  made  the  work  of  Jesus  a  pos- 
sibility. Without  Hillel  the  world  would  have  been 
less  receptive  to  the  message  of  the  lowly  Nazarene. 

Grateful  to  Hillel's  memory  and  appreciative  of 
his  wonderful  work,  the  Talmudists  ascribe  to  his 
life  a  value  as  great  as  to  that  of  Moses,  and  in  the 
beautiful  hyperbolic  form  of  rabbinical  expression, 
it  is  said  that  Hillel  lived  to  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  years.  In  reality,  however,  he  lived  but 
eighty  years,  and  died  about  sixty  years  before  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple  by  Titus,  and  ten  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  having  been  presi- 
dent of  the  Sanhedrin  for  forty  consecutive  years." 


CHAPTER  II 

JESUS   OF   NAZARETH 

IN  writing  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  I  seem  to  myself 
to  hear  a  voice  such  as  came  to  Moses  in  the 
desert  of  old:  "Take  the  shoe  from  off  thy  foot,  for 
the  place  on  which  thou  standest  is  holy  ground." 
As  Moses  marvelled  at  the  bush  which  burned  and 
yet  was  not  consumed,  and  approached  to  examine 
its  nature,  so  I  am  drawn  to  examine  the  wondrous 
mystery  of  the  life  and  death  of  Jesus  to  my  fullest 
power  of  mind,  and  in  deep  reverence. 

I  propose  to  examine  the  position  occupied  by 
Jesus  in  the  history  of  the  Jewish  people,  to  tell  the 
conditions  which  moulded  his  life  work,  and  brought 
about  his  agony  and  death. 

The  sources  from  which  I  shall  draw  mainly  in 
this  task  are  the  pages  of  the  Talmud.  This  remark- 
able work  enshrines  the  mental  activity  of  the  Jew- 
ish race  during  nearly  a  thousand  years.  Though 
embodied  in  literary  form  only  in  the  second  century 
after  the  birth  of  Christ,  by  the  labors  of  Rabbi  Juda 
the  Prince,  the  material  of  the  Talmud  text  was  the 
common  property  of  the  Jewish  people  for  centuries 
earlier. 

The  history  and  philosophy  of  successive  genera- 

30 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  3 1 

tions  were  handed  down  by  a  rigorous  system  of  oral 
tradition  among  the  Rabbis,  as  the  Koran  in  after 
years  was  handed  down  by  the  followers  of  Moham- 
med. The  earliest  traditions  embodied  in  the  work 
of  Rabbi  Juda  the  Prince  date  to  at  least  the  third 
century  before  Christ,  and  later  writers  continued  to 
add  to  the  text  down  to  the  ninth  century  after  his 
birth. 

It  is  rather  an  encyclopedia  than  what  is  styled  a 
history  in  the  common  speech  of  our  own  day. 
Juda's  object  was  to  embody  in  writing  the  traditional 
law  given  to  Moses  as  interpreted  by  later  recog- 
nized teachers  of  Judaism.  The  circumstances  under 
which  these  decisions  were  given,  as  well  as  the  de- 
cisions, are  related  in  the  customary  style  of  Eastern 
nations. 

The  narratives  of  the  Talmud  have  some  resem- 
blance to  the  legends  of  the  Christian  mediaeval  saints, 
but  they  contain  a  wealth  of  facts  relating  to  the  Jew- 
ish people  which  can  be  learned  from  no  other  source. 
The  difference  of  language,  from  pure  Hebrew  to 
the  patois  of  Syria  and  Babylon,  in  which  the  Tal- 
mud is  written,  makes  its  study  a  task  only  for 
scholars,  but  a  task  which  well  repays  the  labor 
imposed. 

From  this  record  of  purely  Jewish  life  and  thought, 
handed  down  to  us  like  a  testament  of  bygone  ages, 
I  seek  to  gather  what  it  tells  of  that  life,  so  full 
of  human  charm  and  sweetness,  of  the  individual 
whose  sublime  principles  might  have  united  all 
men,  Jew  and  Gentile  alike,  under  the  banner  of  his 
Messiahship,    had    it    not   been    for  the   errors    and 


32       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

crimes  of  those  who  mistook  his  word  and  work  and 
mission,  and  even  in  his  name  were  guilty  of  deeds 
at  which  humanity  revolts. 

I  desire  to  place  clearly  before  the  men  of  our  day 
the  community  of  spiritual  thought  which,  begin- 
ning with  Hillel,  runs  through,  and  is  consecrated  by, 
the  life  and  death  agony  of  the  Man  of  Suffering  of 
Galilee.  In  the  sequence  of  time  Jesus  follows 
Hillel,  and  Hillel's  teachings  had  prepared  Hebrew 
hearts  for  the  gentle  message  of  Him  who  followed. 
That  many  were  so  prepared,  outside  history  shows. 
That  many  of  the  leading  Rabbis,  the  masters  in 
Israel,  knew  and  approved  its  doctrine,  is  attested  by 
the  Talmud  itself.  The  name  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
and  of  many  of  his  chief  disciples  find  frequent 
mention  in  its  pages.1  His  life  and  work  and  death 
are  as  clearly  attested  there  as  is  the  work  of  Hillel 
or  his  successors  in  the  Patriarchate.  Looking  ex- 
clusively to  Jewish  historical  authority,  there  can 
be  no  more  doubt  regarding  the  actual  existence  of 
the  one  than  of  the  other. 

"Let  none  be  as  Josua  ben  Perachiah,  who  re- 
pulsed Jesus  of  Nazareth  (Jeshu  ha-Notzri)  with 
both  hands,"  is  an  injunction  contained  in  the 
Talmud.2 

The  day  of  his  death,  the  manner  of  its  accom- 
plishment,3 his  age  at  the  time,  and  the  name  of  the 
Roman  governor,  Pontius  Pilate  (Pinehas  Listai), 
who  sanctioned  his  execution,  are  also  told  there.4 

If  Jesus  is  frequently  referred  to  by  other  names, 
as  Otho  ha-Ish  (that  man),  or  Peloni  (a  certain  one), 
it  may  easily  be    understood.     After  the  death  of 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  33 

Jesus  his  name  became  a  stumbling-block  of  con- 
tention between  different  portions  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple. While  some  used  it  to  heal  the  sick  and  give 
authority  to  the  divine  law  of  love  for  man,6  others 
coupled  it  with  malediction.  The  bitterness  of  these 
dissensions  was  intense.  The  followers  of  Christ 
were  branded  by  some  Jews  with  the  opprobrious 
name  of  heretics  (Minim),  while  other  Jews,  and 
those  often  the  most  learned,  echoed  the  senti- 
ment." 

Whether  regarded  with  love  or  hate,  the  person- 
ality of  Jesus  fills  a  large  place  in  the  Jewish  world 
of  Palestine.  It  occupied  the  thoughts  and  the 
discussions  of  the  Rabbis  to  whom  everything  was 
centred,  at  the  time,  in  the  affairs  of  the  Holy 
Land. 

The  descent  of  Jesus  from  David,  as  set  forth  in 
the  New  Testament,  is  not  disputed  in  the  Talmud, 
though  it  must  have  been  publicly  proclaimed  at  the 
time.  It  is  hardly  credible  that  the  hostile  High 
Priest  and  the  Roman  governor  should  have  laid  such 
stress  on  his  claims  to  kingship  were  not  his  descent 
from  David  an  unquestioned  fact.  Pilate  gave  the 
title  "King  of  the  Jews  "  in  his  sentence  in  a  spirit 
of  no  hostility  to  the  victim  over  whose  cross  it  was 
written.  He  even  used  it  as  a  means  of  exciting 
popular  sympathy  in  his  behalf,  according  to  the 
New  Testament  narrative,  and  the  enemies  who 
sought  and  compassed  his  death  made  no  attempt  to 
deny  His  origin.  The  Prince  of  Judaism  and  the 
Prince  of  the  Christian  world  are  of  one  blood,  the 
race  of  David ;  and  the  faith  and  hopes  of  mankind, 


34      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

whether  Jewish  or  Christian,  spring  from  a  common 
fountain. 

There  are  many  among  my  people  who  decline 
to  regard  the  narrative  of  the  New  Testament  as 
worthy  attention  on  their  part.  At  the  same  time 
their  regard  for  the  Old  Testament  is  not  lessened 
because  they  accept  many  things  in  it  in  an  allegori- 
cal or  figurative  sense.  I  would  ask  such  why  it  is 
not  more  reasonable  to  test  the  statements  contained 
in  the  New  Testament  by  historical  standards.  That 
work  has  been  received  as  authentic  history  by  the 
largest  part  of  civilized  men  during  many  centuries. 
Granted  even  that  we  as  Jews  reject  certain  points 
cardinal  with  the  Christian  faith,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  Christianity  is  a  historical  fact,  and  its  existence 
to-day  is  directly  traceable  to  Jewish  origin  through 
the  New  Testament.  Such  a  work  cannot  be  ignored 
nor  treated  with  contemptuous  indifference  by 
thoughtful  men,  be  they  Jews,  Christians,  or  any 
other  class,  but  least  of  all  by  the  Jewish  historian. 

The  first  appearance  of  Christ  in  public,  when,  at 
twelve  years  of  age,  he  presented  himself  among 
the  learned  doctors  of  the  law  in  the  Temple,  was 
almost  in  the  time  of  Hillel's  life.  Whether  Hillel 
himself  was  one  of  those  who  marvelled  at  the  intel- 
ligence displayed  by  a  child  cannot  be  told,  but  cer- 
tainly the  doctors  then  present  were  Hillel's  followers. 
Hillel's  authority  was  then  supreme  among  the 
teachers  of  Judea.  The  noble  picture  of  Raffaele  is 
one  which  may  command  the  fullest  sympathy  of 
Christian  and  Jew  alike.  The  Temple  stood  in  its 
glory  in  Jerusalem,  and  within  its  precincts  the  mas- 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  35 

ters  in  Israel  expounded  the  Law  of  Moses,  which 
Jew  and  Christian  alike  hold  in  reverence.  Hillel 
had  taught  it  there  forty  years,  and  by  his  words  in 
a  great  measure  the  religious  thought  of  the  people 
had  been  moulded  to  receive  as  they  might  the  mes- 
sage which  Christ  came  to  offer.  That  message  de- 
veloped, but  did  not  contradict,  the  teachings  of  the 
great  Rabbi.  Hillel  had  come  from  Babylon  in  his 
early  days.  The  boy  who  appeared  among  the 
doctors  had  been  an  exile  in  Egypt  from  his  in- 
fancy. Both  were  Jews  even  of  the  noblest  blood 
of  the  ancient  kings,  but  neither  had  any  part  in 
the  narrow  local  spirit  which  would  make  Palestine 
the  only  Holy  Land  in  God's  world. 

The  High  Priests  and  their  partisans,  the  self- 
righteous  Sadducees,  cared  little  for  either  Hebrew 
learning  or  Hebrew  religion.  They  rejected  the 
traditional  law  absolutely,  and  cared  not  for  the 
controversies  of  the  learned  Rabbis.  In  the  very 
service  of  the  Temple  they  were  obliged  to  employ 
the  Scribes  or  Rabbis,  whom  they  stigmatized  by  the 
name  of  Pharisees,  or  aliens,  but  whose  knowledge  of 
the  Hebrew  language  was  indispensable  in  the  Tem- 
ple service.  But  if  the  Sadducees  cared  little  for 
Hebrew  religion,  they  were  filled  with  a  bitter  zeal 
for  the  nationality  of  their  land.  They  were  the 
local  aristocracy  of  Palestine,  recognized  as  such  by 
the  Roman  governors,  and  they  jealously  guarded 
their  official  position,  while  despising  the  belief  of 
the  majority  of  their  nation. 

Hillcl's  teaching  was  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
bigoted  nationalism  of  the  Sadducean  High  Priests. 


36       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

They  held  the  Temple  as  the  centre  of  the  law 
itself:  he  regarded  it  as  merely  an  adjunct.  "You 
are  lost,"  he  said  to  them,  "if  you  are  separated 
from  the  material  Temple,  but  we  carry  a  Temple  in 
our  hearts  in  which  the  Lord  can  be  served  always 
and  everywhere."  "A  place  is  only  holy  if  its 
dwellers  make  it  holy."  8  So  close  is  the  analogy 
between  the  moral  teachings  of  Hillel  and  his  school 
with  those  of  Christ,  that  some  of  our  Jewish  writers 
have  asserted  that  all  the  sayings  recorded  in  the 
New  Testament  may  be  found  in  the  Talmud.  The 
statement  is  partially  true,  but  then  many  of  the  doc- 
trines so  set  forth  were  uttered  by  Rabbis  like  Eliezer 
ben  Hyrkanos  many  years  after  the  death  of  Christ. 

Christ's  appearance  amid  the  doctors  of  the  Tem- 
ple was  but  momentary.  He  buried  himself  in  an 
obscure  village  for  eighteen  years  afterwards.  John 
the  Baptist  and  others,  zealous  for  the  Law,  had 
gone  into  the  desert  to  live  solitary  lives  of  peace  and 
prayer,  away  from  the  corruption  which  reigned  even 
in  the  Sanctuary  of  the  Most  High.  They  foresaw 
coming  changes  in  the  state  of  the  people  of  Israel, 
and  the  advent  of  One  who  would  give  Judea  and 
the  world  something  greater  than  a  revived  empire 
of  David,  but  a  something  which  the  masses  of  the 
people  could  hardly  conceive  in  their  narrow  range 
of  thought. 

The  days  indeed  were  evil  for  the  mass  of  the 
Jewish  people  when  John  came  from  his  desert  to 
raise  the  minds  of  men  with  the  hope  of  a  mighty 
change.  Morals  had  greatly  deteriorated  during  the 
wars  of  the  two  previous  centuries.     The  Talmud 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  37 

gives  a  proof  of  this  when  it  records  how  Ben  Zakkai 
decreed  the  abolition  of  the  ordeal  prescribed  in  the 
Mosaic  Code  in  cases  of  suspected  marital  infidelity. 
It  says  that  the  change  of  manners  was  so  great  that 
what  had  been  a  protection  for  innocence  was  made 
an  engine  for  its  oppression.9 

Though  the  populace  still  gloried  in  their  nation- 
ality, and  looked  forward  to  indefinite  future  gran- 
deur for  it,  the  simple  faith  of  a  former  age  had  been 
weakened  by  the  influence  of  foreign  laws  and  litera- 
ture. Mention  has  been  made  of  the  Sadducees,  a 
party  among  the  Jews,  who  sprang  into  existence 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Greek  monarchs  of  Syria, 
and  who  proclaimed  a  new  doctrine.  They  rejected 
the  whole  traditional  law  which  had  hitherto  been 
accepted  unquestioningly  as  of  equal  authority  with 
the  Scriptures.  Their  position,  doctrinally,  was 
somewhat  similar  to  the  Puritans  of  England.  Their 
innovations  in  the  Jewish  religion  had  indeed  an  an- 
alogy with  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Europe 
afterwards.  The  Sadducee  teachers  taught  that  the 
Bible  alone  was  the  source  of  all  religious  truth,  and 
they  even  rejected  belief  in  a  future  life  because 
they  could  not  find  such  expressly  set  forth  in  the 
written  word.  Their  theory  found  favor  with  the 
native  Jewish  kings,  who  established  an  independent 
kingdom  in  Palestine  during  the  second  century  be- 
fore Christ.  These  rulers  were  of  the  priestly  race, 
and  they  united  in  themselves  the  offices  of  king  and 
High  Priest  of  the  Temple.  In  the  original  organi- 
zation of  the  Jewish  people,  law  and  religion  were 
alike  of  divine  origin,  but  the  priests  were  entirely 


38       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

distinct  from  the  teachers  of  the  law.  The  priests 
were  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  Temple  exclu- 
sively, the  law  was  interpreted  and  decided  by  the 
Rabbis,  or  masters,  who  were  chosen  from  all  classes 
on  the  test  of  learning  alone.  It  was  natural  that 
the  kings  should  seek  to  lessen  the  influence  of  the 
powerful  body  of  the  Rabbis,  and  the  Sadducean 
doctrine  was  decidedly  favorable  to  such  a  result. 
The  Rabbis  were  branded  as  Pharisees,  or  aliens,  as 
a  term  of  reproach.  It  signified  that  their  place  in 
the  nation  was  less  intimately  connected  with  Pales- 
tinian nationality  than  that  represented  by  the  her- 
editary priests,  who  all  descended  from  Aaron. 

Though  the  office  of  High  Priest  was  again  separ- 
ated from  temporal  rule  on  the  extinction  of  the  As- 
monean  dynasty,  it  continued  to  be  a  high  dignity 
in  itself.  When  the  Roman  rule  was  established, 
the  foreign  governors  treated  the  High  Priest  as  the 
head  of  the  Jewish  religion,  and  left  him  free  to 
deal  with  his  own  people  in  religious  affairs.  Ish- 
mael  Phabi  purchased  the  office  from  the  Roman 
governor,  Gratus,  some  years  before  the  preaching 
of  Christ.  He  was  not  even  of  the  family  of  Aaron, 
and  was  a  Sadducee  in  profession,  while  the  people 
at  large  still  held  the  old  traditional  law,  but  Roman 
policy  treated  such  points  with  scornful  indifference. 
Eight  High  Priests  of  Phabi's  family  retained  the 
priesthood  and  the  profitable  guardianship  of  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem  through  Roman  favor.  By 
it,  too,  they  controlled  the  Sanhedrin,  or  Assembly 
of  the  Rabbis,  which  was  at  once  the  supreme  court 
and  the  legislature  of  the  nation   in   both   religion 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  39 

and  morals.  The  Rabbis,  scattered  through  the 
country,  still  retained  their  influence  among  the  peo- 
ple as  teachers  of  the  Jewish  faith.  The  members 
of  the  Sanhedrin  shaped  the  law  to  suit  the  will  of 
the  Sadducean  High  Priests.  The  main  object  of 
the  latter  was  to  increase  their  own  revenues,  and 
for  that  purpose  they  multiplied  minute  religious 
observances,  and  made  the  breach  of  them  punish- 
able with  heavy  fines.  These  fines  were  part  of 
the  revenue  of  the  Temple,  and  the  High  Priests 
drove,  besides,  a  profitable  trade  in  selling  the  vari- 
ous animals  and  other  articles  specified  as  fines  or  re- 
quired for  legal  sacrifice  offerings  generally.  The 
demoralizing  effect  of  this  traffic  in  sacred  things  was 
deeply  felt  by  the  religious  part  of  the  people,  and 
its  oppressive  nature  made  the  office  of  High  Priest 
odious  to  the  mass  of  the  population,  but  the  favor 
of  the  Roman  governors  maintained  the  unworthy 
priests  in  their  purchased  power. 

The  Talmud  tells  how,  shortly  before  the  revolt 
against  Rome  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of  Jer- 
usalem, a  patriotic  member  of  the  Sanhedrin  caused 
a  reduction  of  the  prices  of  the  sacrificial  cattle  and 
doves  as  a  relief  to  the  people.  Subsequently  the 
populace  rose  in  arms,  destroyed  the  bazars  of  An- 
nas on  Mount  Olivet,  killed  the  High  Priest,  and 
cast  his  body  to  the  dogs.10  This  illustrates  the  feel- 
ings with  which  the  Sadducean  Priests  were  regarded 
by  the  people  at  large  in  the  time  of  Christ.  Their 
creed  and  their  conduct  were  alike  repugnant  to  the 
religious  sentiment  of  the  nation. 

Of  the  Pharisees  who,  for  diplomatic  reasons,  were 


40      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

employed  to  do  clerical  service  in  the  Temple,  many 
were  scarcely  more  esteemed  than  the  High  Priest. 
A  large  number  of  others,  while  affecting  unbounded 
zeal  for  religion,  were  grossly  corrupt  in  their  lives. 
The  contrast  between  their  preaching  and  their  prac- 
tice was  a  public  scandal,  which  finds  expression  in 
the  Talmud  scarcely  less  strongly  than  in  the  Gospel 
narrative.  A  remarkable  passage  in  the  former 
enumerates  seven  classes  of  Pharisees  according  to 
the  various  manners  affected  by  each,  and  five  of 
those  classes  are  held  up  as  unworthy  of  respect. 
The  term  Tsevoim,  "dyed  Pharisees,"  was  a  com- 
mon term  for  hypocrite  among  the  Jews.  "You  need 
not  fear  the  Pharisees,  who  are  really  such,"  was 
the  last  advice  of  King  Yannai  to  his  wife,  "but  fear 
the  dyed  Pharisees,  who  do  the  works  of  Zimri  and 
seek  the  reward  of  Pinehas. "  n  The  testimony  of 
this  king  is  notable,  because  of  his  intense  hatred  of 
the  Pharisees.  In  the  civil  war,  and  after  the  cap- 
ture of  their  fortress  Bethome,  about  80  B.C.,  he 
caused  no  less  than  eight  hundred  Pharisees  and 
their  partisans  to  be  crucified.  A  deep  horror  of 
this  form  of  punishment  was  left  on  the  minds  of  all 
Pharisees  for  over  a  century.12 

It  should  be  remembered  that,  though  Pharisee 
and  Sadducee  are  names  given  to  two  opposite  doc- 
trines, they  are  only  applied  to  the  teachers  of  those 
doctrines,  not  to  the  body  of  the  laity,  who  ac- 
cepted either.  The  common  people  of  Palestine 
held  to  the  law  as  given  them  by  the  Pharisee  Rab- 
bis. They  recognized  the  authority  of  the  Sanhe- 
drin   and   its  president   as   supreme   in    matters   of 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  41 

religion,  but  they  are  never  called  Pharisees.  That 
term,  both  in  the  Talmud  and  the  Gospels,  is  con- 
fined exclusively  to  the  teachers  of  the  law  and  its 
students,  from  whose  ranks  these  teachers  were 
recruited. 

Such  was  the  religious  condition  of  the  Jews  of 
Palestine  when  John  the  Baptist  came  from  his 
desert  retreat  to  stir  its  people  to  higher  spiritual 
life.  He  was  looked  on  as  an  Essene,  a  class  of  men 
who  devoted  themselves  to  austerity  of  life  and 
works  of  mercy  to  others.  The  Jewish  people  then 
as  now  in  many  lands  recognized  the  existence  of 
supernatural  powers  in  individuals,  and  associated 
their  possession  closely  with  a  stricter  rule  of  life. 
John's  preaching  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by 
the  people  at  large,  and  even  by  many  of  the  Phari- 
sees, who  saw  nothing  opposed  to  their  own  belief 
in  his  action.  For  the  Jews  always  hoped  for  the 
coming  of  a  Messiah,  and  at  no  time  more  fervently 
than  at  the  announcement  of  John.  When  Christ 
presented  himself  to  him  for  baptism,  John  recog- 
nized him  as  the  Chosen  of  the  Lord,  and  pro- 
claimed his  own  inferiority  to  him  at  the  same  time. 
There  was  nothing  repugnant  to  Jewish  teaching  in 
John's  proclamation.  The  idea  of  a  Messiah,  a 
definite  individual,  who  was  to  come  in  the  fulness 
of  time  to  bring  some  great  beneficial  change  in  the 
condition  of  mankind,  was  familiar  to  all  Jews.  The 
prophets  promised  it ;  the  Rabbis  continually  taught 
it;  the  Sadducees  scoffed  at  it,  but  it  had  gone  into 
the  flesh  and  bone  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  they 
accepted  it  without  any  reservation  as  to  its  veracity. 


42       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Opinions  differed  about  the  personality  of  the  Mes- 
siah. Some  held  that  the  Messiah  eternally  existed 
with  God,  that  is,  was  an  emanation  of  God  Himself, 
and  united  with  the  Holy  Ghost;  that  His  name,  as 
well  as  the  Law  itself,  was  among  the  first  emana- 
tions of  God,13  that  is,  in  the  sense  of  the  Logos  of 
the  New  Testament. 

Others  held  different  theories  about  the  person  to 
be  expected,  but  some  person  was  keenly  looked  for 
by  all  Jews  to  fulfil  the  glorious  promises  made  by 
the   prophets   of  God's   glory   in    the    Holy  Land. 
When,   a  century  and  a  quarter  after  Christ,   the 
famous  Rabbi  Akibah  actually  proclaimed  the  sol- 
dier Bar  Kochba  the  Messiah,   few  objected.     The 
Talmud  records  but  one  objection.     Yochanan  ben 
Torta  said  to  Akibah:  "Sooner  will  grass  grow  out 
of  thy  chin  than  this  one  will  be  the  Messiah. ' '  "   But 
then  this  very  opposition  may  have  sprung  from  the 
faith  that  the  Messiah  had  already  come,  that  the 
One  crucified  was  the  real  Redeemer.     Bar  Koch- 
ba's  imposture  was  recognized  after  his  defeat,  and 
Juda   the  prince  branded   his   name  as  Bar  Kozi- 
bah,  the  son  of  lies,   but   Akibah   is   still   regarded 
as  a  saint  and  martyr  by  the  Jewish  people. 

There  seems  no  evidence  that  Christ,  when  he  be- 
gan his  mission,  made  public  announcement  of  any 
claim  to  the  Messiahship.  Even  if  he  had,  it  would 
not  have  been  necessarily  regarded  as  an  offence 
against  the  Law  of  Moses.  He  went  among  the  peo- 
ple as  a  teacher  of  the  Law,  and  as  such  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  synagogues  of  the  Rabbis,  who  saw 
nothing  offensive  to  their  ideas  in  his  mission.     He 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  43 

declared  he  had  not  come  to  destroy,  but  to  fulfil 
the  Law  of  Moses.  He  bade  the  people  follow  the 
teaching  of  the  Pharisees,  as  they  held  the  chair  of 
Moses,  the  inspired  lawgiver,  while  at  the  same 
time  he  cautioned  them  against  the  practices  in  ac- 
tual life  of  the  same  teachers.  The  questions  ad- 
dressed to  him  by  the  Pharisees  were,  at  least  in 
part,  addressed  to  obtain  elucidation  of  the  true 
meaning  of  the  Law.  At  times  they  openly  ap- 
proved his  answers,  as  when  he  declared  the  false- 
hood of  the  Sadducean  doctrine  that  the  dead  rise 
not  again.  On  other  occasions,  the  silence  with 
which  his  answers  were  received  may  fairly  be  inter- 
preted into  consent.  He  was  asked  to  eat  in  the 
houses  of  distinguished  Rabbis,  and  he  accepted 
their  invitations.  Other  Pharisees  came  to  warn  him 
of  plots  against  his  life.  While  individuals  occasion- 
ally attempted  violence  or  expressed  opposition  to 
his  teachings,  there  seem  no  good  grounds  to  think 
that  the  body  of  the  Jewish  people,  or  the  larger  part 
of  the  Rabbis,  felt  or  showed  any  hostility  to  him  on 
religious  grounds. 

Indeed,  it  is  hard  to  see  why  they  should.  If  the 
moral  teachings  recorded  in  the  New  Testament 
were  placed  in  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  Rabbis  can- 
onized in  the  Talmud,  they  would  seem  perfectly 
conformable  to  the  spirit  of  the  Law  of  Moses. 
Christ  did  not  deny  the  obligation  on  the  Jews  of 
his  time  of  the  ceremonial  law.  When  his  disciples 
were  rebuked  for  violating  the  Sabbath  by  plucking 
ears  of  corn  for  food,  he  did  not  deny  that  such  was 
forbidden  under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  excused 


44      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

it  on  the  ground  of  necessity.   The  teachers  of  highest 
repute  in  the  Talmud  used  the  same  reasoning  to 
justify  any  work  on  the  Sabbath,  if  needed  for  the 
saving  of  life  or  even  to  prevent  danger  to  life.      His 
prohibition  of  divorce  was  in  accord  with  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Rabbis,  "Let  no  man  put  away  the  wife 
of  his  youth  unless  for  grievous  sin."      It  is  true  that 
Hillel,   the  president   of    the   Sanhedrin,   had   sanc- 
tioned a  laxer  application  of  the  law,  but  there  was 
nothing  in  the  principle  laid  down  by  Christ  on  this 
subject  opposed  to  the  teachings  of  many  orthodox 
Rabbis.     It  was,  then,  neither  zeal  for  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion nor  opposition  to  the  moral  teachings  of  Christ 
that  instigated  the  plot  to  take  away  his  life.     The 
people  followed  him  with  ever-growing  enthusiasm, 
during  his  mission,  but  the  High  Priest  and  his  fac- 
tion saw  in  the  popular  movement  a  twofold  danger 
to  their  own  power  and  wealth.     The  revival  of  the 
religious  spirit  among  the  Jewish  people  would,  the}' 
thought,  naturally  increase  the  dislike  already  exist- 
ing against  themselves  as  unbelievers  and  intruders 
into  the  priestly  office.      It  might  provoke  popular 
outbursts,  such  as  that  which  afterwards  did  in  fact 
sweep  away  the  second  Annas.     Another  risk  was 
that  the  popular  effervescence  over  the  new  Teacher 
might   excite   the  political  jealousy  of  the    Roman 
rulers  in  Palestine.      Christ  was  from  Galilee,  and  the 
Galilean  peasantry  of  that  day  were  a  particularly 
independent  and  fearless  section  of  the  Hebrew  peo- 
ple.     Local  outbreaks  had  occurred  there  more  than 
once,  and  the  rulers  of  the  Temple  feared  that  one 
of  national  extent  might  follow.     They  felt  that  in 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  45 

such  a  case  the  Temple  and  their  own  wealth  would 
be  involved  in  a  common  ruin  with  the  people.  To 
avert  such  a  risk,  the  unworthy  High  Priest,  Joseph 
Caiaphas,  resolved  to  make  away  with  the  life  of  the 
Teacher  whose  words  and  deeds  were  so  widely  in- 
fluencing the  people. 

To  accomplish  the  destruction  of  Christ  with 
safety  to  themselves,  his  enemies  must  recur  either 
to  Jewish  or  to  Roman  law.  The  crowds  of  follow- 
ers that  surrounded  him  precluded  the  possibility  of 
private  assassination.  By  the  help  of  their  depen- 
dents in  the  Sanhedrin  the  High  Priest  might  secure 
a  conviction  in  that  body  on  some  charge  that  might 
be  capital  under  Jewish  law,  but  the  forms  of  that 
law  required  long  delay  in  such  cases,  and  Caiaphas 
dared  not  face  the  popular  feeling  that  would  surely 
be  stirred  up  against  himself  by  such  an  attempt. 
There  was  absolutely  no  accusation  that  could  be 
brought  against  Christ,  under  the  Law  of  Moses,  of 
any  important  kind.  It  would  be  different  if  the 
Roman  authorities  could  be  induced  to  act.  They 
were  heedless  of  Jewish  feeling  and  popularity  if  the 
interests  of  the  empire  were  involved,  but  they,  too, 
were  wholly  indifferent  to  Jewish  religion  or  ques- 
tions connected  with  it.  The  Sadducees  tried,  un- 
successfully, to  involve  Christ  in  a  political  charge 
by  asking  him  whether  it  were  lawful  to  pay  tribute 
to  the  heathen  caesar.  They  were  equally  unfortu- 
nate in  trying  to  interest  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee, 
Herod,  in  their  cause.  Finally  Caiaphas  determined 
to  adopt  a  middle  course  to  attain  his  end  of  destruc- 
tion.    It  was  to  seize  his  victim  suddenly,  submit 


46      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

him  to  a  trial  before  the  priestly  court,  which  might 
be  represented  to  the  heathen  governor  as  the  usual 
course  of  Jewish  law,  and  then  obtain  from  the  latter 
a  sentence  of  death,  which  it  was  thought  might 
readily  be  granted  in  the  case  of  an  individual  with- 
out wealth  or  powerful  friends  to  plead  his  cause. 
An  additional  motive  might  be  suggested  if  the 
danger  of  a  popular  sedition  were  urgently  pre- 
sented to  Roman  jealousy. 

The  plot  was  put  into  execution.  The  great 
Teacher  was  seized  at  night  by  armed  servants  of  the 
High  Priest,  and  a  patrol  of  soldiers  secured  by  his 
influence.  No  charge  had  been  made  against  him 
previously,  nor  was  he  brought  before  the  court  of 
the  Sanhedrin,  the  only  body  competent,  under 
Jewish  law,  to  try  a  charge  involving  the  death  pen- 
alty. Almost  every  rule  of  that  law  was,  indeed, 
trampled  on  in  the  case  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  It 
required  that  a  capital  charge  should  be  heard  in  the 
daytime  only,  and  that  two  days  at  least  should  be 
given  to  its  investigation.  It  absolutely  forbade  the 
punishment  by  crucifixion.15  It  gave  a  culprit,  even 
if  convicted,  the  right  of  demanding  a  rehearing  of 
his  case  during  five  days  in  succession.  But  four 
crimes  were  held  worthy  of  death, — idolatry,  murder, 
incest,  and  blasphemy, — and  the  last  was  clearly  de- 
fined to  be  coupling  the  ineffable  name  of  God  with 
an  imprecation.  Finally,  the  lawful  judge  was  the 
vice-president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  and  the  decision 
rested  with  him,  with  no  one  else,  and,  least  of  all, 
with  the  High  Priest. 

Whatever  influence  Caiaphas  and  his  party  may 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  47 

have  had  in  the  Sanhedric  Court,  they  did  not  ven- 
ture to  bring  their  destined  victim  before  it.  Jesus 
was  dragged  by  the  Temple  retainers  not  to  the 
Court,  but  to  the  private  house  of  the  High  Priest. 
His  captors,  who  had  gone  out  to  seize  his  person 
only  under  cover  of  night  through  fear  of  the  peo- 
ple, surrounded  the  house  to  keep  off  any  partisans 
or  followers  of  the  illustrious  Captive.  A  gathering 
of  the  mercenary  scribes  of  the  Temple  and  of  some 
"elders  "  proceeded  to  try  him,  with  the  High  Priest 
as  their  president.  No  charge  had  been  made  to 
warrant  the  arrest,  and  now  that  Jesus  has  been 
seized,  his  enemies  seek  to  find  a  colorable  pretext 
for  their  action.  False  witnesses  attempt  in  vain  to 
bring  forward  some  point  of  his  teaching  which 
might  be  twisted  into  an  offence  against  the  Jewish 
law,  but  in  vain.  Even  before  the  High  Priest's 
followers  they  could  not  weave  any  connected  story 
of  such. 

Then  Caiaphas  himself  rose  and  by  questions  sought 
to  draw  from  Jesus  some  statement  which  might  be 
turned  into  an  accusation.  Baffled  by  the  reply  that 
the  teaching  of  Christ  had  been  public,  and  could  be 
learned  from  his  hearers,  the  High  Priest,  with 
affected  zeal  for  the  law,  which  he  outraged,  asked : 
"Art  thou  the  Christ,  the  son  of  the  living  God  ?  " 
The  same  question  had  been  already  publicly  asked 
him,  and  in  answer  he  had  pointed  to  the  works  he 
did.  John  the  Baptist  had  been  publicly  asked  a 
similar  question  three  years  before.  It  was  no  crime 
under  Jewish  law,  that  a  man  should  proclaim  him- 
self the  Messiah,   whom   all  expected.      Much    less 


48       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

was  it  to  speak  of  God  as  "the  Father,"  and  to  one- 
self as  the  "son  of  God  "  ;  for  that  term  was  com- 
monly applied  to  the  whole  people  of  Israel,  and  Jew 
and  Christian  alike  address  the  Almighty  as  "Our 
Father."  16  It  is  uncertain,  apparently,  whether 
Jesus  replied  directly  to  the  question  by  asserting 
his  Messiahship,  or  only  answered:  "So  you  say,"  " 
but  neither  would  have  been  criminal  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Pharisee  Rabbis.  Even  less  so  would  be  the 
prophecy  which  accompanied  the  declaration : 
"Hereafter  you  shall  see  the  Son  of  Man  sitting 
on  the  right  hand  of  the  power  of  God,  and  coming 
in  the  clouds  of  heaven." 

That  God  had  spoken  and  would  continue  to  speak 
through  the  mouths  of  inspired  men,  or  Prophets, 
was  then,  as  now,  a  fixed  belief  of  all  who  held  to  the 
Mosaic  Law.  A  prophecy  might  be  true  or  it  might 
be  an  imposition,  but  its  utterance  in  the  name  of 
God  Himself  was  no  crime.  To  assert  that  would  be 
to  stamp  the  most  venerated  names  in  Scripture, 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  and  David,  as  criminals.  It 
was,  however,  enough  for  the  Sadducee  who  filled 
unworthily  the  seat  of  Aaron.  He  tore  his  robes 
and  proclaimed  a  blasphemy.  His  servile  partisans 
echoed  the  cry  and  declared  the  so-called  crime  wor- 
thy of  death. 

They  could  only,  with  safety  to  themselves,  vent 
their  hate  in  words  and  blows.  The  Roman  gover- 
nor held  strictly  in  his  own  hands  the  right  of  capital 
punishment  among  the  subject  race.  Accompanied 
by  the  gang  of  his  followers,  the  High  Priest  goes  to 
the  pretorium,  the  Roman  Justice  Hall,  and  there 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  49 

asks  Pilate  to  inflict  death  on  the  prisoner  he  brings 
to  him.  The  charge  is  altered  to  better  awaken  the 
political  passions  of  a  Roman  ruler: 

'We  have  found  this  man  leading  astray  our  na- 
tion, and  forbidding  to  pay  tribute  to  caesar,  and 
saying  he  is  the  anointed  king." 

No  shadow  of  proof  is  given  to  these  charges,  and 
the  governor  receives  them  with  coolness,  mixed 
with  contempt.  Caiaphas  urges  in  vain  his  own  sup- 
posed rights  and  official  character.  He  asks  if 
Pilate  supposes  he  would  bring  a  prisoner  to  him  un- 
less he  were  indeed  guilty  of  offences  against  Jewish 
law. 

'Then  take  and  judge  him  by  your  Jewish  law," 
was  the  scornful  reply. 

Pilate  despised  the  High  Priest,  whose  bribes  he 
had  received,  with  all  a  Roman's  contempt  for  Asi- 
atic barbarians.  But  the  malice  of  Caiaphas  was  not 
to  be  baffled  by  scorn.  He  urged  that  Jewish  law 
could  not  inflict  death,  and  appealed  again  more 
eagerly  to  the  Roman  fears  of  sedition  by  declaring 
that  his  prisoner  wished  to  make  himself  a  king,  a 
rebel  against  the  empire.  His  attendants  re-echo 
the  cry,  and  add  that  they  recognize  no  king  but 
caesar.  This  may  well  prove  that  not  the  people  of 
Judea,  but  a  hired  mob,  was  the  public  which  clam- 
ored for  the  death  of  Christ. 

The  Roman  governor  examines  the  accused  long 
and  earnestly,  while  the  guard  checks  with  spear  and 
sword  the  noise  of  the  rabble.  Pilate  was  merciless 
in  his  rule.  He  had  doomed  unsparingly  the  rioters 
and  zealots  of  Galilee,  and  he  knew  their  faces  well, 


50       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

but  the  face  now  before  him  is  not  as  theirs.  A 
spiritual  light  shines  there,  and  universal  love  for 
man.  The  fetters  which  bind  him  cannot  lower  the 
dignity  of  his  person ;  the  fierce  hate  of  his  enemies, 
who  rage  for  his  life,  neither  daunts  him  nor  affects 
the  mildness  of  his  words.  The  harsh  Pilate  softens 
towards  a  Hebrew,  and  he  strives  hard  to  release 
him.  He  appeals  even  to  the  national  spirit  of  his 
accusers,  and  asks  if  they  would  have  him  crucify  the 
king  of  their  nation.  The  appeal  to  Roman  preju- 
dice had  fallen  in  vain  even  on  the  Roman  Governor. 

It  was  now  the  turn  of  the  High  Priest  to  pose  as 
the  devoted  subject  of  Rome,  and  to  threaten  even 
the  Roman  governor.  "If  thou  release  this  man 
thou  art  not  loyal  to  the  empire,"  was  his  final  ar- 
gument, and  it  succeeded  too  well.  Though  Pilate 
might  treat  the  Jewish  dignitaries  with  haughty  in- 
difference, he  knew  well  the  power  which  the  wealth 
of  the  Temple  gave  its  ruler.  Even  in  Rome  itself 
a  charge  of  disloyalty  backed  up  with  gold  might  be 
fatal  to  a  Roman  governor.  He  yielded  and  deliv- 
ered Jesus  into  the  hands  of  the  High  Priest  and  his 
followers  to  deal  with  as  they  desired.  They  led 
him  away  to  die  by  the  Roman  death  of  crucifixion, 
absolutely  abhorrent  to  the  Jewish  religion  and, 
above  all,  to  every  true  Pharisee. 

Over  the  supreme  tragedy  let  the  Angel  of  Sorrow 
spread  his  wings.  Veil  thy  face,  Sun  !  Be  darkened, 
sky ;  let  the  earth  tremble,  and  man  mourn  in  tears ! 
The  most  angelic  of  men,  the  most  loving  of  teach- 
ers, the  meek  and  humble  Prophet,  is  to  die  by  the 
death  of  the  cross. 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  5 1 

He  has  made  humility  honor;  he  has  carried  the 
highest  wisdom  to  the  homes  of  the  lowly  and  igno- 
rant of  the  world ;  he  has  carried  it  beyond  all  bar- 
riers of  schools  and  Temple,  and  for  this  he  is  to  die 
a  death  of  shame.  The  Redeemer  of  the  poor,  the 
teacher  of  the  ignorant,  the  friend  of  all  that  faint 
with  toil  and  are  oppressed  with  cares,  must  die  on 
the  cross. 

It  is  hard  to  believe  that  malice  and  greed  could 
so  brutalize  the  hearts  of  men;  harder,  that  those 
men  should  be  the  nominal  leaders  of  that  people  to 
whom  the  Lord  God  himself  had  given  the  sovereign 
commandment:  "Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as 
thyself." 

But  it  is  only  too  true.  Greed  of  lawless  gain 
wrung  from  the  people's  oppression,  low  ambition  of 
the  venal  honors  bought  from  a  foreign  master,  and 
fear  of  the  wrath  of  an  outraged  populace  made 
those  leaders  craven,  apostate  to  the  law  of  God,  and 
slayers  of  the  noblest  spirit  of  their  own  and  of  all 
times. 

Jesus  died  for  the  essence  of  all  religion ;  for 
purity,  charity,  and  holiness;  for  a  cause  in  which 
death  itself  is  a  godly  thing. 

When  we  place  the  life  and  death  of  Jesus  beside 
that  of  the  greatest  of  other  teachers,  as  Hillel,  the 
soul  expands  in  admiration.  Hillel's  was  a  life  of 
peace.  He  moulded  the  minds  of  his  people  in  the 
council,  and  he  prepared  them  remotely  for  the 
mission  of  Jesus,  but  there  was  no  shadow  of  sacri- 
fice nor  blood  in  his  life.  But  every  word  of  Jesus 
points  to  a  tragic  end  freely  accepted  for  the  good  of 


52       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

others.  It  would  have  been  easy  for  him  to  raise 
the  bold  mountaineers  of  his  native  Galilee  in  his 
own  defence,  when  his  enemies  sought  his  life,  and 
with  them  to  drive  the  recreant  High  Priest  and  his 
partisans  from  the  Temple,  but  he  would  not  do  it. 
Bloodshed  and  human  power  were  repugnant  alike 
to  the  nature  and  teachings  of  this  most  admirable 
of  men,  who  freely  gave  his  life  for  the  truth  he  pro- 
claimed. 

His  fate  is  no  secret  to  himself.  In  his  announce- 
ment of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  one  can  hear  the 
strokes  of  the  hammer  on  the  nails  that  pierce  his 
hands.  The  greatness  which  can  speak  in  the  face 
of  torture  and  death  as  Jesus  spoke;  which  can  re- 
turn good  for  evil,  love  for  hate,  blessing  for  curses; 
which  not  only  preaches  the  law  of  love,  but  lives 
by  it  and  dies  for  its  sake,  is  a  greatness  before  which 
every  other  fades  into  nothing. 

The  man  Jesus  is  the  most  heroic,  the  grandest, 
the  noblest  personality  of  all  time  and  age.  Even 
in  the  shadow  of  Golgotha  let  us,  however,  be  just 
and  not  lay  the  charge  of  the  great  Crime  on  those 
who  did  not  commit  it.  It  was  not  the  Mosaic 
Law,  nor  the  Jewish  people,  nor  the  great  body  of 
its  teachers,  the  Pharisees,  who  steeped  their  hands 
in  the  blood  of  Christ.  That  was  exclusively  the 
work  of  the  Sadducean  High  Priest  and  his  servile 
adherents,  of  men  who  had  usurped  by  fraud  the 
succession  of  Aaron  and  used  it  as  a  means  of  heap- 
ing up  wealth  by  oppression,  who  were  the  tools  of 
Rome,  not  the  representatives  of  the  religion  of 
Moses,  murderers  in  the  name  of  Jewish  law,  which 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  53 

they  despised  alike  in  their  creed  and  their  lives. 
The  Jewish  law  did  not  and  could  not  sanction  the 
death  of  Christ.  The  mob  which  came  from  the 
Temple,  and  the  High  Priest,  with  swords  and  clubs, 
in  the  company  of  Judas,  "by  night  for  fear  of  the 
people,"  and  which  on  the  following  morning  yelled, 
"Crucify  the  king  of  the  Jews,  we  have  no  king  but 
caesar!  "  was  not  the  Jewish  people  that  had  sung 
"  Hosanah  to  the  Son  of  David  !  "  a  few  days  before. 
In  truth  and  justice  let  not  that  crowning  iniquity 
be  laid  to  their  charge. 

Not  even  the  Pharisees  or  teachers  of  the  law,  so 
frequently  rebuked  by  Jesus  for  the  inconsistency  of 
their  precepts  with  their  practice,  were  the  agents  of 
his  death.  Some  of  that  class  undoubtedly  co-oper- 
ated with  the  Sadducean  High  Priest,  but  the  mass 
of  the  Rabbis  had  no  share  in  it.  Nicodemus,  who 
took  down  the  body  of  Christ,  was  himself  a  master 
in  Israel.  Gamaliel,  the  grandson  of  Hillel,  the 
president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  nowhere  appears  in  the 
iniquitous  proceedings.  A  short  time  later,  when 
the  High  Priest  persecuted  the  disciples  of  Christ, 
Gamaliel,  according  to  the  New  Testament  (Acts  v.), 
spoke  in  their  behalf  in  words  that  are  wholly  in- 
consistent with  any  hostility  towards  Christ  or  his 
doctrine : 

"I  say  to  you,  refrain  from  these  men,  and  let 
them  alone;  for  if  this  work  be  of  men  it  will  come 
to  naught.  But  if  it  be  of  God  you  cannot  hin- 
der it,  and  you  may  be  found  yourselves  foes  of 
God." 

This  declaration  of  the  highest  authority  among 


54       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

the  Jewish  teachers  shows,  we  think,  that  the  rab- 
binical body  had  no  part  in  the  crime  of  Caiaphas, 
the  High  Priest. 

The  lesson  is  instructive  for  Jew  and  Christian 
alike,  and  may  well  lead  both  to  a  better  understand- 
ing of  each  other,  and  an  advancement  in  the  charity 
which  Christ  taught  to  men.17 


CHAPTER  III 

RABBI  YOCHANAN  BEN  ZAKKAI 

AMONG  the  many  disciples  who  were  moulded 
by  the  great  Hillel  to  continue  his  policy,  one 
was  specially  distinguished,  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai. 
He  had  entered  the  schools  late  in  life,  like  Hillel 
himself.  He  had  been  a  merchant  before  becoming 
a  student  and  a  Rabbi,  and  his  business  ability  was 
shown  all  through  his  long  life  in  the  discharge  of 
his  clerical  functions.1 

Ben  Zakkai  mastered  the  learning  of  the  law  with 
an  ease  not  to  be  expected  in  a  scholar  of  forty  years 
of  age.  Hillel's  favor  was  won  not  less  by  his  dili- 
gence than  by  the  systematic  power  of  teaching 
which  he  quickly  developed.  Not  only  the  law, 
but  many  languages  of  the  Gentiles,  occupied  the 
active  mind  of  Ben  Zakkai.3  He  was  a  natural  dip- 
lomat as  well  as  a  scholar,  and  at  the  time  diplomatic 
skill  was  a  matter  of  vital  necessity  for  Jewish 
teachers,  who  would  carry  on  the  instruction  of  their 
people  without  exciting  the  jealousy  of  their  Roman 
rulers.  Ben  Zakkai's  urbanity,  his  calmness,  which 
no  provocation  could  disturb,  and  a  quiet  dignity 
which  imposed  respect  on  even  the  haughtiest  inso- 
lence, made  him   a   model  in  this  respect.     Hillel 

55 


56      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

regarded  him  as  his  own  right  hand.  He  felt  that 
though  the  arms  of  Rome  might  overthrow  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,  even  destroy  the  Temple,  the  faith 
would  be  safe  with  men  like  Ben  Zakkai  at  the  head 
of  affairs.  The  Roman  might  despise  the  Jew,  but 
there  was  one  man  in  Judea  he  was  forced  to  respect, 
Rabbi  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai.  No  Roman  could 
show  brutality  towards  the  calm  Oriental,  whose 
stately  courtesy  ever  offered  the  first  greeting  to 
even  a  slave.  Even  the  arrogance  of  the  victorious 
soldier  felt  rebuked  by  the  mild  patience  which 
marked  every  act  of  the  Jewish  teacher.3 

In  patience,  indeed,  Ben  Zakkai  possessed  his  soul, 
and  in  it  he  both  found  for  himself  and  pointed  out  to 
his  people  the  true  secret  of  success  for  the  Hebrew 
race.  Tenacity  of  purpose,  coupled  with  meekness 
of  demeanor,  has  carried  the  Jew  through  centuries 
of  struggle,  while  pride  of  heart  and  reckless  indiffer- 
ence to  principle  as  surely  doomed  its  conquerors  to 
destruction.  The  Jewish  race  was  powerless  in  the 
field  against  the  disciplined  armies  of  Vespasian  or 
Hadrian.  It  acknowledged  the  fact,  and  bowed  to 
the  yoke  it  could  not  break,  but  it  never  recognized 
that  yoke  as  other  than  a  passing  one.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  empire  the  conquered  Jews  held  still  to 
their  own  law ;  they  cultivated  their  minds  on  the 
old  Hebrew  learning,  and  kept  their  faith  in  them- 
selves. They  kept  aloof  from  heathen  ways  and 
vices,  but  they  avoided  disputes  or  the  proclama- 
tion of  their  moral  superiority,  which  they  felt  to  be 
their  own  even  in  physical  bondage.  Hillel  had,  all 
through  his  life,  insisted  on  the  ethical  importance  of 


RABBI    YOCHANAN   BEN   ZAKKAI  57 

meekness.  Ben  Zakkai  taught  the  same  lesson,  not 
for  individuals,  but  for  the  public  action  of  the  na- 
tion. The  patient  man  proved  in  this  field  better 
than  the  strong  man.  The  Jewish  nationality  has 
outlived  the  empire  which  destroyed  Jerusalem. 
The  religion  and  morality  of  Judea  have  prevailed 
over  the  superstitions  and  the  philosophy  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  Whether  it  was  done  by  Ben  Zakkai  or 
by  Paul  of  Tarsus,  the  moral  remodelling  of  the  Ro- 
man world  was  exclusively  the  work  of  teachers  of 
Jewish  race. 

Ben  Zakkai's  life  was  lengthened  far  beyond  the 
ordinary  term.  He  was  the  favorite  disciple  of 
Hillel  and  a  contemporary  of  Herod  the  Great,  yet 
he  lived  to  see  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  by 
Titus,  and  to  reorganize  the  Sanhedrin  after  that 
national  catastrophe.  His  life  was  cast  in  a  time  of 
factions  and  disturbances  both  within  and  without. 
Mention  has  been  made  elsewhere  of  how  the  Sad- 
ducean  priesthood  tyrannized  the  people  and  bent 
their  energies  to  sustain  themselves  in  power.  The 
intruding  High  Priests  of  the  House  of  Bocethos, 
of  Cantheros,  and  of  Phabi,  in  turn,  oppressed  the 
people.  And  as  these  priests  monopolized  the 
traffic  in  sacerdotal  offerings,  their  influence  was 
naturally  directed  to  multiplying  the  ceremonial 
duties  connected  with  the  Temple.  They  had 
sought  and,  by  bribes  to  the  Roman  authorities,  ob- 
tained a  judicial  power  that  did  not  really  belong  to 
their  office.  Hillel  had  made  a  strong  attempt  to 
counteract  their  influence,  but  he  was  largely  ham- 
pered by  his  opponent,  Shammai.     In  the  time  of 


58       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Christ  this  pernicious  influence  was  at  its  height. 
After  his  death  their  influence  gradually  diminished. 
In  their  place  another  party  arose,  the  Siccarees,  the 
sworn  enemies  of  Rome.  Between  all  these  parties 
and  the  constant  strife  amongst  them,  the  very  faith 
of  Israel  was  in  danger.  The  men  who  had  suc- 
ceeded Hillel — his  son  Simon,  and  his  grandson 
Gamaliel  the  first — were  not  fitted  to  cope  with  the 
astute  diplomats  who  presided  over  the  Temple ;  the 
task  then  fell  to  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai  of  preserving 
the  Jewish  religion,  and  of  carrying  out  the  policy  of 
Hillel.  He  became  the  virtual  head  of  the  Sanhe- 
drin  and  the  leader  of  the  orthodox,  or  Pharisee,  ele- 
ment of  the  nation,  and  no  fitter  man  could  have 
been  found. 

In  multiplying  the  petty  details  of  ceremonial 
worship  the  High  Priests  exaggerated  the  importance 
both  of  the  Temple  and  the  land  of  Palestine.  No 
fitting  worship  could  be  offered  anywhere  but  in  the 
Temple,  and  by  an  easy  stretch  of  reasoning  the 
Sadducees  argued  that  a  man  could  hardly  be  a  true 
Jew  if  he  resided  outside  the  Holy  Land,  where  the 
Temple  stood.  This  narrow  feeling  of  nationality 
extended  beyond  the  bounds  of  Sadducean  secta- 
rianism. It  grew  strong  among  the  masses  when 
Roman  oppression  became  intolerable.  It  was  the 
special  task  of  Ben  Zakkai  to  moderate  the  fanaticism 
of  patriotic  feeling  while  cultivating  the  feeling  itself 
among  their  people,  as  well  as  to  preserve  the  re- 
ligion of  Moses  from  corruption  at  the  hands  of 
the  Sadducean  High  Priests  and  their  partisans. 
Like  Hillel,  Ben  Zakkai  felt  that  a  Jewish  king- 


RABBI  YOCHANAN  BEN  ZAKKAI        59 

dom,  however  glorious,  was  not  the  end  for  which 
the  divine  revelation  of  the  Law  had  been  made  to 
Moses.  He  felt  it  was  given  for  a  higher  object,  to 
establish  the  rule  of  justice  and  truth  in  every  part 
of  God's  world,  to  build  up  a  Temple,  not  of  stone 
and  mortar,  which  might  be  destroyed  by  human 
hands,  but  of  human  hearts,  freely  offering  the  hom- 
age of  love  to  their  Creator  and  to  the  men  made  in 
his  image.  He  set  himself  then  to  lessen  the  load 
of  local  ceremonial,  which  had  been  so  notably  in- 
creased by  the  greed  of  the  High  Priests,  and  to  im- 
press on  the  minds  of  the  people  the  spiritual  nature 
of  their  religion.  The  Temple  itself,  rebuilt  by 
Herod  and  profaned  by  the  crimes  of  its  administra- 
tion, commanded  little  veneration  from  his  religious 
soul.  He  saw  with  a  prophetic  eye  that  the  condi- 
tion of  the  people  in  Palestine  had  no  elements  of 
stability.  A  legend  represents  him  as  passing  the 
edifice,  when  its  gates  were  suddenly  opened  by  in- 
visible hands.  'Temple,"  cried  Rabbi  Yochanan, 
"why  wouldst  thou  frighten  me?  knowest  thou  not 
that  thine  own  destruction  is  at  hand?  "  4 

His  task  was  no  easy  one,  with  the  Sanhedrin  itself 
under  the  sway  of  the  Sadducean  High  Priests,  and 
the  people  handed  over  to  their  mercy  by  the  Ro- 
man proconsuls.  The  only  influence  he  could  wield 
was  that  derived  from  his  own  abilities  and  learning. 
He  enlisted  the  people  at  large  in  his  cause.  Near 
the  outer  wall  of  the  Temple  he  taught  them  the 
true  nature  of  the  law  with  simple  eloquence. 
Even  in  subjection  the  Jewish  people  still  retained 
some  influence  over  its  rulers,  and  Ben  Zakkai  was 


60       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

advanced  in  the  Sanhedrin  in  spite  of  Sadducean 
hostility.  He  was  made  chief  justice,  and  in  that 
office  he  had  opportunity  for  carrying  out  his  policy 
on  a  larger  scale.  His  boldness  was  in  strong  con- 
trast to  the  timidity  of  the  son  and  grandson  of 
Hillel.  He  abrogated  one  of  the  oldest  regulations 
of  the  law,  though  dating  from  Moses  himself,  as  a 
necessity.  This  was  the  ordeal  of  "bitter  waters  ' 
prescribed  as  a  test  in  charges  of  adultery  against 
married  women.  It  was  sanctioned  alike  by  the 
practice  of  ages,  the  teaching  of  the  Rabbis,  and  the 
doctrine  of  the  Sadducees,  who  recognized  the  Scrip- 
tures as  the  sole  and  infallible  guide  in  religious  be- 
lief and  in  practice.  It  had  become  an  engine  of  fraud 
and  oppression  in  the  hands  of  the  corrupt  adminis- 
trators of  the  Temple  service,  who  were  charged  with 
its  application.  As  the  chief  judge  in  Israel,  Ben 
Zakkai  decreed  its  abolition,  and  his  decision  was 
received  with  approval  by  the  most  religious  as  well 
as  by  the  people.  It  was  a  signal  victory  for  the 
Rabbis  over  the  High  Priests  and  their  faction.6 

Even  a  more  significant  measure  of  Ben  Zakkai's 
was  his  decision  that  the  "Red  Cow  "  as  an  offering 
for  the  sins  of  the  whole  people,  sacrificed  by  Sad- 
ducean High  Priests,  was  of  no  worth  and  void.  As 
there  were  no  other  High  Priests  to  offer  up  the 
"Red  Cow,"  the  decision  practically  amounted  to 
an  abolition  of  the  practice  altogether.  It  is  signifi- 
cant of  the  mould  of  Ben  Zakkai's  mind.  The  Law 
of  Moses  had  to  be  shaped  to  new  circumstances  if  its 
real  life  was  to  be  preserved.  The  Temple  observ- 
ances could  not  be  long  maintained  if  the  people  were 


RABBI    YOCHANAN   BEN   ZAKKAI  6l 

to  go  forth  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  but  the  spirit- 
ual law  could  if  the  hearts  of  the  people  cherished  it. 
Were  this  not  the  case,  Ben  Zakkai  would  never 
have  attempted  interference  with  one  of  the  cardinals 
of  the  Temple  service,  though  it  were  performed  by 
less  worthy  priests. 

No  doubt  the  tyranny  and  corruption  of  the  venal 
priesthood  were  evidence  sufficient  of  an  approach- 
ing catastrophe  from  without  as  well  as  within  the 
land  of  Palestine.  A  bitter  hatred  against  the  Jew- 
ish oppressors  existed  among  all  classes.  The  peo- 
ple cried:  "Woe  on  the  house  of  Bocethos  and  on 
the  staffs  of  his  hirelings,  that  beat  men  to  obedi- 
ence !  Woe  on  the  house  of  Cantheros,  because  of 
what  their  pens  have  written  !  Woe  on  the  house  of 
Annas,  for  their  poisoned  tongues !  Woe  on  the 
house  of  Ishmael  Phabi  for  their  heavy  hand  !  They 
are  High  Priests,  their  sons  and  the  husbands  of 
their  daughters  stand  over  the  Temple,  and  their 
servants  beat  the  people  with  staffs.  The  Temple 
cries  to  them,  "Begone  ye  children  of  Heli,  ye  have 
defiled  the  House  of  God."  6  Such  are  the  words 
preserved  in  the  Talmud  as  an  expression  of  the 
popular  feeling.  But  neither  the  son  nor  the  grand- 
son of  Hillel  had  really  penetrated  the  depth  of  his 
teaching.  Ben  Zakkai  alone  knew  what  the  master 
wanted,  and  he  alone  foresaw  the  future. 

The  corrupt  tyranny  of  the  High  Priests  was  not 
the  only  foe  which  the  calm  yet  courageous  chief 
judge  had  to  contend  with.  A  large  part  of  the 
people  who  hated  the  Sadducean  doctrines  were 
drunk  with  fanatical  patriotism  which  they  identified 


62       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

with  religious  duty.  A  mob  rose  and  slew  the  High 
Priest  in  hate  of  his  extortions,  and  the  act  went  un- 
avenged by  Rome.  The  hot-blooded  among  the 
people  felt  emboldened,  and  they  believed  they  could 
by  their  own  strength  overthrow  the  Roman  empire. 
A  conspiracy  of  murder,  not  unlike  the  Italian  Car- 
bonari of  half  a  century  ago,  was  organized  by  the 
fanatical  zealots.  These  were  the  Siccarees,  the  dag- 
ger men,  or  assassins,  and  their  chief  was  Ben  Be- 
tiach,  a  nephew  of  Ben  Zakkai,  but  far  from  sharing 
his  mild  spirit.  Assassination  of  Roman  and  of 
Jewish  officials  became  frightfully  frequent.  The 
Jewish  people  showed  a  hopeless  ignorance  of  the 
political  conditions  around  them.  They  fought  bit- 
terly among  themselves  while  exasperating  their 
Roman  rulers  by  their  atrocities.  There  was  no 
council  among  the  patriots,  no  union.  Some  looked 
for  supernatural  aid  in  the  struggle ;  others  doubted 
that  Rome  would  even  seek  to  maintain  her  rule  by 
arms.  Others  relied  on  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  the 
wealth  of  the  people,  and  the  courage  of  the  race  to 
protect  them.  The  fanatics  forced  the  wealthy  into 
their  insurrection,  and  proclaimed  war  to  the  death 
against  the  rule  of  the  heathen. 

The  bulk  of  the  Jewish  people  broke  out  in  insur- 
rection. They  lacked  not  patriotic  spirit,  nor  physi- 
cal courage  such  as  their  fathers  had  shown  in  their 
struggle  against  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria,  but  there 
was  neither  concert,  leader,  nor  discipline  among  the 
ill-starred  people.  There  was  neither  a  David  nor  a 
Judas  Maccabeus  to  lead  them  to  battle.  The  ablest 
men  among  them   foresaw  the  hopelessness  of  the 


RABBI    YOCIIANAN   BEN   ZAKKAI  63 

cause  in  which  they  were  engaged,  without  knowing 
how  to  extricate  themselves. 

A  few  of  the  noblest  spirits  among  the  nation  saw 
a  future  beyond  the  inevitable  ruin  of  the  Temple 
and  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  They  saw  the  law 
written  in  flame  on  the  skies,  and  its  benign  light 
shedding  lustre  over  the  world ;  they  recognized  a 
kingdom  not  of  earth  but  of  heaven,  as  seen  by  the 
prophets,  and  as  announced  by  the  meek  Nazarene. 
Among  these  was  Ben  Zakkai.  Though  opposed  to 
the  insurrection,  he  commanded  the  respect  of  all 
among  the  Jews.  He  used  it  to  try  to  bring  sane 
counsels  to  the  hearts  of  the  fanatics.  He  called  his 
nephew,  Ben  Betiach,  to  him,  and  urged  the  crimi- 
nality of  a  rising  which  had  no  prospect  of  any  result 
but  the  shedding  of  oceans  of  blood.  The  wisdom 
of  calm  age  spoke  to  the  senseless  fury  of  passionate 
youth. 

'Unless  you  desist  from  your  course,  you  are  all 
doomed  to  death,"  said  the  old  Rabbi. 

"Better  death  than  dishonor,"  was  the  reply. 
"But   the  people  will  weary  of   fighting   against 
overpowering  enemies.     They  will  seek  peace  and 
the  enjoyment   of  what   they  have,   even  if  under 
Roman  rule." 

'They  must  and  shall  fight!"  replied  the  fierce 
zealot. 

'They  will  not,"  urged  Ben  Zakkai;  "they  have 
food  in  plenty  within  the  town';  they  will  reflect  be- 
fore famine  comes  to  madden  their  hearts.  Seek 
peace  while  yet  you  may  find  it." 

'We    will    have    no    peace    with    the    heathen, 


64       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

accursed  of  God !  We  shall  fight  this  very  night  or 
to-morrow  !  '  exclaimed  Ben  Betiach,  and  he  rushed 
away  from  his  uncle's  counsels. 

He  did  not  fight,  however,  then,  but  he  made  the 
struggle  only  the  more  terrible.  His  uncle's  caution 
had  struck  him.  He  would  bring  hunger  to  his  aid 
in  the  desperate  struggle.  By  his  command  the 
provisions  stored  in  Jerusalem  were  burned  and  the 
people  were  called  to  face  death  by  famine  if  they 
did  not  at  once  break  the  lines  of  the  besiegers.  The 
result  is  too  harrowing  to  repeat  here.  Through  all 
the  agonies  that  are  written  on  the  pages  of  Jewish 
history,  there  is  none  to  match  the  siege  and  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem.  The  calamity  which  still  burns 
the  soul  of  every  Jew  was  caused  by  disregard  of  the 
wise  counsels  of  Ben  Zakkai. 

When  he  saw  the  end  approaching,  when  he  recog- 
nized that  all  was  lost,  he  concluded  to  leave  the 
doomed  city.  He  counselled  with  his  foremost  dis- 
ciples, Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos,  Josua  ben  'Hananiah, 
and  his  friend  Rabbi  Zadok,  who  had  been  fasting 
daily  for  forty  years  and  had  spent  his  time  in  prayer 
to  the  Lord  to  save  the  Holy  City  and  the  Temple. 
At  this  meeting  it  was  settled  that  Rabbi  Yochanan 
.  should  leave  the  city,  go  to  the  Roman  general,  and 
plead  for  the  people,  or  at  least  save  the  men  who 
had  no  share  in  the  rebellion.  But  the  rebels  slew 
all  who  attempted  to  leave  the  city.  They  made  no 
conditions  and  asked  no  quarter.  They  would  fight 
to  the  death  for  their  rights  for  independence  and 
the  sanctuary. 

Ben  Zakkai  caused  a  rumor  to  be  spread  of  his 


RABBI  YOCHANAN  BEN  ZAKKAI        65 

sudden  sickness  and,  after,  of  his  death.  He  in- 
structed his  disciples  to  put  him  in  a  coffin  and 
carry  him  out  of  Jerusalem  into  the  Roman  camp. 
Though  the  times  were  such  that  a  life  was  hardly 
counted,  yet  the  announcement  of  the  great  Rabbi's 
death  caused  universal  sorrow ;  even  the  soldiers, 
rough-mannered  and  wild-visaged  men,  shed  tears. 

The  Rabbi's  disciples  carried  the  coffin  to  the 
"Death  Gate,"  which  opened  only  for  funerals. 
There  they  hoped  they  could  pass  without  diffi- 
culty. But  the  besieged,  thinking  that  members 
of  the  peace  party  might  resort  to  such  means  of 
escape,  guarded  even  the  Death  Gate. 

When  the  funeral  procession  approached,  it  was 
stopped  at  the  gate. 

"Whose  body  have  you  there?'  asked  the 
captain. 

'The  crown  from  our  head  has  fallen  ;  we  are  car- 
rying the  body  of  our  master,  Rabbi  Yochanan  ben 
Zakkai, ' '  they  cried  with  wailing  and  groans. 

The  captain  was  affected. 

"If  Rabbi  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai  is  dead,"  he  said, 
"then  fallen  is  indeed  the  crown  of  Israel.  Open 
the  gate,  men,  let  them  pass." 

"Art  thou  sure,  captain,  that  Rabbi  Yochanan  is 
dead?"  cried  a  fanatic.  "Maybe  they  are  taking 
away  a  living  traitor.  I  will  make  sure  that  he  is 
dead." 

He  raised  his  lance  to  strike  at  the  shrouded  form 
of  the  Rabbi. 

"Hold,  men  of  Israel!"  cried  the  disciples;  "to 
dishonor  the  body  of  the  saint  would  be  a  sin  for 


66       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

which    disaster,  swift    and  sure,  would    fall    on    all 
Israel.     Let  us  pass  in  peace." 

'They  are  right,"  said  the  captain;  "enough  sor- 
row has  already  come  upon  us,  let  none  be  added  by 
such  a  sin.     Open  the  gate." 

The  fanatic  reluctantly  desisted ;  the  gate  was 
opened  and  the  procession  passed  through. 

At  a  distance  from  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  the  dis- 
ciples halted,  Rabbi  Yochanan  came  from  his  coffin 
and  went  to  the  Roman  camp.  The  guards  took 
him  to  the  tent  of  Titus,1  and  he  bent  low  before  the 
general. 

"Hail,  caesar!  "  said  Ben  Zakkai,  "I  ask  thy  pro- 
tection." 

"I  am  not  caesar, "  Vespasian  replied. 
'Thou    art    caesar    even    now;    for   the   caesar    in 
Rome  is  dead,"  the  Rabbi  said. 

He  had  scarcely  uttered  the  words,  when  a  mes- 
senger entered  the  tent,  bringing  the  news  of  Nero's 
death  and  of  Vespasian's  call  to  the  throne. 

'Thou  art  a  Prophet,  Rabbi,"  said  Vespasian. 
"The  Lord  our  God  hath  given  me  knowledge. 
Thou  art  mighty,  O  caesar,  thou  wilt  take  the 
tower.  In  the  tower  is  a  cask  of  honey,  near  the 
honey  is  a  snake :  kill  the  snake  and  save  the  cask  of 
honey,"  said  the  Rabbi.8 

Vespasian  understood  the  metaphor. 

"Nay,  Rabbi,"  he  said,  "we  destroy  the  tower, 
the  snakes,  and  the  cask  with  the  honey.  Ask  for 
something  else." 

"Then,  O  caesar,  give  me  protection  in  the  city 
of  Yamnai;  I  am  old,  I  am  a  lover  of  peace:  permit 


RABBI  YOCHANAN  BEN  ZAKKAI        6j 

me  to  spend  my  remaining  years  in  study  in  the 
company  of  my  few  friends,"  the  Rabbi  said. 

"Is  that  all?"  cried  Vespasian  in  wonder. 

"One  more  request,  caesar:  a  friend  of  mine, 
Rabbi  Zadok,  is  ill  and  worn  from  fasting,  I  pray 
thee,  send  thy  physicians  to  heal  him." 

A  Roman  bearing  such  tidings  would  have  asked 
gold,  slaves,  and  honors,  while  this  old  Hebrew 
sought  but  study;  as  if  study  meant  conquest  or 
power!  How  could  the  Hebrews  become  a  great 
nation  if  their  distinguished  men  lacked  ambition? 

Perhaps  these  thoughts  passed  through  the  mind 
of  Vespasian  as  he  granted  the  Rabbi's  request. 
He  knew  not  that  his  word  would  undo  the  whole 
work  of  Roman  conquest  which  he  was  engaged  in. 
He  thought  to  crush  the  Hebrew,  his  nationality, 
his  Temple,  his  faith,  while  he  gave  Yamnai  to  Ben 
Zakkai,  whose  ambition  seemed  so  small.  From 
Yamnai  went  forth  the  law  as  well  as  from  Zion ;  it 
spread  over  the  world,  and  no  power  has  ever  been 
strong  enough  to  stop  its  progress. 

Ben  Zakkai  left  Vespasian  and  went  to  Yamnai, 
where  he  soon  gathered  around  him  the  noblest 
spirits  of  his  time.  He  founded  the  great  school 
known  in  the  Talmud  as  "the  school  of  Yamnai." 
He  gave  special  attention  to  those  of  his  disciples 
who  he  knew  would  continue  the  work  after  him, 
and  began  the  reorganization  of  a  new  Sanhedrin. 
Unlike  the  old  one  in  Jerusalem,  its  aim  was  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  spiritual  government  independent 
of  place,  rather  than  to  change  a  fixed  national  au- 
thority from   Jerusalem  to  Yamnai.     Sadducecism 


68       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

as  a  force  was  dead ;  its  influence  even  remotely  on 
the  law-giving  body  of  the  nation  was  felt  no  more. 
The  difficulties  which  later  arose  among  the  scholars 
was  a  contention  against  the  power  of  Hillelism  and 
the  bold  strides  it  made  in  its  policy  of  universalism, 
rather  than  its  sectarian  doctrines.  The  men  who 
fought  them  most  bitterly  were  Ben  Zakkai's  own 
disciple,  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos,  and,  later,  Simon 
ben  Yohai,  both  ambitious  for  leadership  in  the 
affairs  of  the  Sanhedrin. 

The  destruction  of  the  Temple,  though  he  had 
foreseen  the  calamity,  crushed  the  soul  of  Rabbi 
Yochanan.  He  and  his  disciples  tore  their  garments 
and  for  seven  days  mourned  in  sackcloth  and  ashes. 
Then  they  went  to  Jerusalem  to  look  on  its  ruin. 
The  disciples  threw  themselves  upon  the  sacred  soil 
and  lifted  up  their  lamentations.  Rabbi  Yochanan 
ben  Zakkai  gazed  at  the  ruins  and  then  at  his  weep- 
ing friends.  Tears  blurred  his  vision  ;  he  was  sorely 
stricken.  But  from  the  ruins  and  the  mist  and 
smoke  he  saw  a  new  spiritual  Temple  rise,  and  its 
apex  kissed  the  clouds  which,  lit  by  the  wondrous 
light,  cast  upon  the  earth  a  glory  beyond  expression. 

"My  sons,"  said  the  master,  "weep  not,  and  dry 
your  tears ;  the  enemy  hath  destroyed  the  sanctuary 
of  stone  and  mortar,  but  the  true  altar  of  the  Lord, 
the  place  of  forgiveness,  is  with  us  yet.  Would  you 
know  where?  Behold,  in  the  homes  of  the  poor, 
there  is  the  altar;  love,  charity,  mercy,  and  justice 
are  the  offerings,  the  sweet  incense  which  pleases  the 
Lord.  Love  ye  one  another,  and  ye  shall  find  mercy 
and  forgiveness."  ' 


RABBI    YOCHANAN   BEN   ZAKKAI  69 

"But,  O  Master,"  cried  they,  "the  sanctuary  of  the 
Lord  is  destroyed,  Israel  has  disappeared,  and  there- 
fore the  Lord's  presence  no  longer  abides  with  us." 

"Say  not  so,  my  children,"  said  the  saint, 
"whithersoever  the  people  of  the  Lord  go,  thither 
the  holy  presence  goes  with  them."  10 

With  over  a  hundred  years  on  his  head  the  ven- 
erable teacher  turned  away  from  the  desolation  of 
Jerusalem  to  build  up  again  the  spiritual  organiza- 
tion of  his  people.  Through  the  favor  of  Vespasian, 
who  then  ruled  the  Roman  world,  Ben  Zakkai  was 
able  to  open  a  college  for  his  disciples  in  Yamnai. 
Other  Rabbis  gathered  around  to  share  the  protec- 
tion afforded  him.  He  seized  the  opportunity  to 
found  a  spiritual  republic  such  as  Hillel  had  outlined. 
With  statesman-like  skill,  Ben  Zakkai  transferred  the 
power  hitherto  held  by  the  High  Priests,  recog- 
nized by  Rome  as  the  heads  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
into  the  hands  of  the  Rabbis.  The  office  of  the 
Jewish  Pontiff  had  disappeared  with  the  destruction 
of  the  Temple.  In  its  stead  came  the  Patriarchate, 
which  gradually  increased  in  power  and  was  favored 
even  by  Rome.  Its  organization  was  solidified  by 
the  master,  Ben  Zakkai,  and  thenceforth  formed  the 
only  national  government  left  to  the  Jewish  people. 

Ben  Zakkai  gathered  around  him  the  masters 
who  had  belonged  to  the  Sanhedrin  like  himself. 
He  filled  up  the  numbers  of  the  membership  from 
the  most  learned  of  his  disciples,  and  this  national 
council,  in  fact,  gained  in  power  among  the  people 
with  the  fall  of  the  Temple.  Ben  Zakkai  was  uni- 
versally recognized  as  its  natural  head,  both  for  his 


JO      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

knowledge  of  the  law  and  his  commanding  abilities. 
With  self-sacrificing  wisdom,  however,  he  procured 
the  election  of  the  second  Gamaliel,  a  descendant  of 
Hillel,  as  president.  He  thought  that  the  recogni- 
tion of  heredity  and  Davidic  descent  in  the  presi- 
dency of  the  national  council  would  add  an  element 
of  dignity  and  stability  to  the  office  which  was 
needed  in  the  troubled  times.  During  the  remnant 
of  Ben  Zakkai's  life  his  authority,  however,  was  de- 
servedly paramount  in  the  council  of  Israel. 

The  organization  of  the  national  council  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  was  a  vital  measure  in  the  life  of 
the  race.  During  the  century7  that  elapsed  after  the 
extinction  of  the  national  dynasty  the  minds  of  the 
Jewish  people  were  mainly  turned  to  the  hope  of  a 
revived  kingdom  which  should  restore  the  glories  of 
David  and  Solomon.  For  that  reason  they  clung  to 
Jerusalem  and  its  Temple  with  a  patriotic  fervor 
which  even  the  usurped  tyranny  of  the  High  Priests 
of  Phabi's  house  could  not  quench.  When  all  these 
hopes  were  blighted  and  the  spirit  of  resistance 
crushed  by  the  swords  of  the  Roman  legionaries, 
Ben  Zakkai  recalled  the  people  to  the  spiritual  work 
which  was  the  true  essence  of  Judaism.  The  lesson 
that  patience  is  better  than  strength,  which  he  had 
preached  in  vain  before,  was  now  welcomed  by  every 
Hebrew,  and  it  has  become  part  of  their  nature  in 
the  long  ages  that  have  passed  since.  The  sage  was 
better  than  the  soldier. 

The  religion  of  Israel  is  still  a  living  force,  while 
the  material  empire  of  Rome  has  crumbled  in  the 
dust.     The  Scriptures,  the  intellect,  and  the  individ- 


RABBI   VOCHANAN   BEN   ZAKKAI  yi 

uality  of  the  race,  which  seemed  to  be  doomed  to 
extinction  when  Titus  burned  the  Temple,  survive 
to-day.  They  have  penetrated  like  a  leaven  the 
moral  and  intellectual  nature  of  every  race  within 
the  old  Roman  empire  and  far  beyond  its  limits. 
Christianity  is,  in  truth,  but  Judaism  developed  to 
its  fuller  extent;  for  Judaism  in  its  essence  was  the 
faith  taught  by  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  That  Ben  Zakkai 
understood  this  truth  and  worked  with  forethought 
and  wisdom  to  save  the  truth  contained  in  Judaism 
is  his  great  glory.  Hillel  spoke  prophetically  when 
he  styled  Ben  Zakkai  "The  father  of  wisdom  for 
generations  yet  to  come."  "  The  great  Rabbi  had 
domestic  as  well  as  national  sorrows.  A  dearly 
loved  son  was  taken  from  him  by  death,  and  the 
soul  of  the  father  was  filled  with  grief.  His  disciples 
came  to  offer  what  consolation  they  could.  One 
recalled  the  sorrow  that  had  been  endured  by  Adam 
when  he  looked  on  the  body  of  his  murdered  son. 
Another  bade  the  sufferer  consider  the  afflictions  of 
Job. 

"Children,"  answered  Ben  Zakkai,  "how  can  my 
grief  be  lightened  by  thinking  of  the  grief  of  other 
men  ? ' ' 

But  Elazar  ben  Arakh  spoke  to  him  and  said: 
"A  certain  man  had  received  the  guardianship  of 
a  jewel  of  price,  and  he  watched  by  day  and  night 
for  its  safe  keeping.  When  the  lord  of  the  jewel 
came  to  take  it  back  the  man  was  happy,  because  he 
no  longer  could  fear  for  the  jewel.  Even  so,  dear 
Master,  thou  shouldst  rejoice  when  thou  hast  given 
thy  son  to  God,  who  trusted  thee  with  him,  since 


72       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

thou  hast  given  him  in  his  innocence  as  thou  didst 
first  receive  him." 

And  the  master  said  to  Elazar: 

"Thou  alone  hast  spoken  wisely,  and  thy  words 
have  consoled  my  soul."  ia 

Ben  Zakkai  had  another  son,  Juda,  who  became  a 
scholar  worthy  of  his  father. 

When  the  master,  after  his  long  life,  found  his 
end  draw  near  he  was  seized  with  great  fear.  His 
disciples,  when  they  came  to  his  bedside,  were 
scandalized  and  asked : 

"Master,  thou  art  the  light  of  Israel;  why,  then, 
dost  thou  tremble?" 

"Were  I  going  before  a  human  judge  to  plead  for 
life  might  I  not  justly  tremble,"  the  master  an- 
swered; "yet  a  man  can  be  swayed  bywords  and 
favor,  but  the  Judge  before  whom  I  must  appear 
cannot  be  deceived.  From  His  tribunal  man  must 
go  the  road  of  heaven  or  the  road  of  hell.  Can  I 
tell  which  road  I  shall  be  sent? " 

His  disciples  asked  a  last  blessing,  and  he  told 
them: 

"May  your  fear  of  offending  God  be  as  great  as 
your  fear  of  man." 

"What  more?  "  they  asked,  and  he  said: 

"If  a  man  seeks  to  please  God  as  eagerly  as  he 
seeks  to  please  men,  he  will  never  sin."  13 

His  death  occurred  a  few  years  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple.  The  Talmud  justly  says  of 
him:  "With  the  death  of  Rabbi  Yochanan  ben 
Zakkai  the  light  of  wisdom  was  quenched.14  None 
like  him  rose  afterward  in  Israel. 


CHAPTER    IV 

RABBI    'HANINAH    BEN   DOSA 

TWO  divisions  of  the  Synagogue  exist  in  the 
present  day.  The  one  looks  with  longing  and 
prayer  for  a  restored  Jerusalem;  the  other  desires 
assimilation  with  the  nations  of  the  world.  The 
first  is  eager  for  a  national  theocracy  on  the  very  soil 
of  Palestine ;  the  other  for  a  universal  brotherhood 
of  man.  The  so-called  "Reform  "  wing  of  Jewry, 
the  world  over,  looks  with  disdainful  pity  on  those 
Jews  who  cling  to  tradition,  believe  in  miracles,  and 
with  beating  hearts  and  tear-filled  eyes,  pray  daily 
for  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  look  with  confi- 
dence for  the  supernatural  signs  that  are  to  herald 
it.  They  regard  them  as  slaves  to  superstitions 
which  entail  sacrifices,  agonies,  tears,  and  self-denial. 
The  origin  of  this  division  can  be  traced  back  as  far 
as  the  first  century  of  the  present  era  in  the  life  of 
the  Jews  of  that  day. 

At  that  time  Ben  Zakkai  and  Ben  Dosa  already 
appeared  as  leaders  of  the  two  schools  which  are  rep- 
resented in  the  Jewish  race  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
Both  were  attached  to  the  faith  and  devoted  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  law  given  to  Moses,  but  they 
differed  as  to  the  best  counsel  for  perpetuating  it. 

73 


74       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Ben  Zakkai  realized  that  Titus  had  closed  the  politi- 
cal career  of  Jewish  nationality,  and  that,  if  that 
nationality  were  still  to  exist,  it  must  struggle  with 
intellectual  weapons  alone,  with  the  all-conquering 
humanitarian  principle.  He  would  perpetuate  Ju- 
daism by  spreading  its  moral  teachings  through- 
out the  heathen  world,  building  a  temple  of  souls 
in  place  of  the  ruined  Temple  of  stone. 

To  the  mind  of  his  rival,  Ben  Dosa,  Judaism  could 
only  be  perfectly  maintained  in  a  Jewish  state  where 
the  civil  administration  was  carried  out  in  strict 
conformity  with  the  religious  law,  binding  the  indi- 
vidual conscience  of  every  believing  Jew.  If  such  a 
state  were  impossible  from  external  causes,  then 
the  law  at  least  should  be  kept  intact  by  the  indi- 
vidual children  of  Israel.  That  could  only  be  done 
by  jealously  excluding  the  heathen  and  his  ways 
from  all  contact  with  the  inner  life  of  the  faithful 
Jew.1 

To  Ben  Zakkai  the  law  was  only  a  means,  though 
a  most  potent  one,  for  promoting  the  human  welfare 
of  his  race.  To  Ben  Dosa  human  life  was  only  the 
means  by  which  the  supreme  law  of  the  universe 
could  be  fulfilled  by  man.  In  itself  the  fulfilment 
of  the  law  was  better  than  any  human  happiness, 
better  than  life  itself.2 

While  Ben  Zakkai  would  adapt  its  precepts  to 
promote  the  interests  of  his  people,  in  a  worldly 
sense,  Ben  Dosa  saw  mysteries  of  another  world  and 
another  life  in  every  word  of  its  text.  He  cared 
nothing  for  the  material  comforts  of  life  or  the  splen- 
dor of   high    position,   both    of  which  Ben   Zakkai 


RABBI    'HANINAH    BEN   DOSA  75 

keenly  appreciated.  Ben  Dosa  was  an  ascetic,  who 
found  his  only  joy  in  mystic  contemplation,  and 
lived  in  want.  His  asceticism  awed  the  people. 
Ben  Zakkai,  who  in  his  heart  despised  the  mystic 
teacher,  yet  appreciated  his  influence  with  the  peo- 
ple. Ben  Dosa,  on  his  side,  felt  little  respect  for  the 
man  of  the  world,  who  knew  the  law  indeed  as  an 
intellectual  study,  but  seemed  to  take  no  heed  to 
conform  his  practice  to  its  precepts.3 

Ben  Dosa  was  not  the  founder  of  the  system  of 
religious  observance  which  bore  the  name  of  Prac- 
tice, and  called  for  a  close  and  minute  fulfilment  of 
every  point  of  the  law  as  a  strict  duty.  That 
theory  dates  back  to  Rabbi  Simon  the  Just,  the  last 
member  of  the  great  synod,  in  the  third  century 
before  Christ.  He  was,  however,  the  true  follower 
of  Shammai,  a  fervent  adherent  to  nationalism  and 
its  leader  at  a  most  critical  time  for  the  Jewish  race. 
He  was  the  immediate  forerunner  of  Rabbi  Akibah, 
and  the  great  revolution  attempted  by  Bar  Kochba 
may  be  traced  to  the  effects  of  his  teaching.  With- 
out the  silent  persistence  in  working  for  political 
independence  as  a  requisite  for  the  theocratic  gov- 
ernment to  which  he  looked  as  the  true  fulfilment 
of  the  Law  of  Moses,  the  hope  of  a  Messiah  might 
have  died  out  of  the  hearts  of  Israel.  Though  that 
spirit  has  caused  the  Jew  sorrow  and  tears  and  oceans 
of  blood,  yet  without  it,  who  can  tell  whether  there 
would  be  to-day  any  memory  of  the  Jew,  or  whether 
he  would  stand  as  an  unimpeachable  witness  of  the 
marvellous  wisdom  and  mercy  of  divine  providence? 
This  spirit  gave  the  Jew  his  particular  individuality 


76      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

among  the  nations  during  the  centuries  gone  by,  and 
it  shows  itself  whenever  disorganization  threatens 
his  religious  autonomy.  It  is  the perpetuum  mobile 
of  the  Jewish  faith,  a  marvel  in  the  eyes  of  men. 

It  had  its  dangers,  however,  in  the  days  we  now 
speak  of  and  they  were  appreciated  by  the  politic 
Ben  Zakkai.  If  it  were  to  grow  unchecked,  he  felt, 
it  was  bound  to  result  in  a  war  of  extermination 
against  the  Jewish  race  and  an  ossification  of  Juda- 
ism itself,  which  would  hinder  rather  than  help  the 
maintenance  of  the  Mosaic  law.  He  felt,  too,  that 
it  was  useless  to  oppose  it  by  external  force.  Re- 
ligious ideas,  forcibly  repressed,  break  out  after  lapse 
of  time  with  the  accumulated  power  stored  during 
their  period  of  enforced  inactivity.  Such  at  least 
was  the  belief  of  Ben  Zakkai.  He  tried  to  win  over 
the  mystic  to  his  own  policy  by  treating  him  with 
personal  respect.  He  asked  him  to  his  house, 
sought  his  advice,  and  treated  it  with  consideration 
externally.  The  Talmud  gives  a  characteristic  anec- 
dote of  this  intercourse  between  the  politician  and 
the  mystic. 

"It  came  to  pass  that  Rabbi  'Haninah  ben  Dosa 
went  to  Rabbi  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai  to  discuss  the 
Law  with  him,  and  while  he  was  in  his  house  the  son 
of  Ben  Zakkai  fell  ill.     Then  Ben  Zakkai  said : 

"  "Haninah,  my  son,  ask  the  mercy  of  Heaven 
that  my  son  may  live.' 

"And  'Haninah  bowed  his  head  even  between  his 
knees  and  so  he  prayed  to  the  Lord.  And  the  Lord 
healed  the  son  of  Ben  Zakkai. 

"Then  said  Ben  Zakkai: 


RABBI    'HANINAH   BEN   DOSA  JJ 

"'Had  I  bowed  my  head  between  my  knees  a 
whole  day  Heaven  would  not  have  heeded  me.' 

"Then  'Haninah  went  his  way,  and  Ben  Zakkai's 
wife  asked  her  husband  : 

"  'Is  'Haninah,  then,  greater  than  thou  art?' 

"And  Ben  Zakkai  answered: 

"  'No.  He  is  like  a  servant  before  the  king,  but 
I  am  as  a  lord  before  the  king.'  "  * 

The  pride  of  the  ruler  in  Israel  could  not  be  bet- 
ter described. 

The  sayings  recorded  of  Ben  Dosa  breathe  a  dif- 
ferent spirit  and  show  how  widely  divergent  were 
his  thoughts  from  those  of  the  great  politician. 

"If  a  man  fears  sin  more  than  he  loves  knowledge, 
his  knowledge  will  abide  with  him,  but  the  knowl- 
edge of  him  who  loves  it  more  than  he  fears  sin  will 
pass  away." 

"If  a  wise  man's  good  works  are  greater  than  his 
wisdom,  his  wisdom  will  abide,  but  if  a  wise  man's 
works  are  not  equal  to  his  wisdom,  then  his  wisdom 
itself  will  decay." 

"He  who  finds  grace  with  man's  conscience  will 
find  grace  with  the  Most  High,  but  he  whose  deeds 
are  reprobated  by  just  men  will  also  be  reprobated 
by  the  Most  High."  5 

These  maxims  express  the  principle  of  Ben  Dosa's 
national  policy,  and  no  argument  could  swerve  him 
from  his  chosen  path.  Whatever  plea  the  diplo- 
matists set  up  to  make  him  relent,  his  reply  was 
always  the  same:  "The  Jews  have  brought  their 
misfortune  upon  themselves  by  laxity  in  the  ob- 
servance of  the  law,  hence  nothing  but  the  strictest 


78       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

adherence  could  restore  them  to  the  grace  of  God, 
and  bring  back  their  former  happiness.  Had  they 
paid  less  attention  to  external  affairs  and  more  to 
that  domestic  theocracy  established  by  the  great 
lawgiver,  there  would  have  been  no  cause  to  prac- 
tise diplomacy  against  the  heathen  and  to  protect 
the  law  against  him.  In  sooth  the  law  would  have 
been  as  a  strong  walled  fortress  to  the  Jew,  and  he 
would  not  have  needed  to  fear  any  but  God." 

Stern  as  Ben  Dosa  was  with  others,  far  more  stern 
was  he  with  himself.  His  life  was  pure  and  holy. 
His  domestic  happiness  was  perfect  in  spite  of  his 
awful  poverty.  His  fame  as  a  man  of  divine  power 
travelled  through  all  the  land,  and  from  the  length 
and  breadth  thereof  people  came  to  him  asking  his 
intercession  with  Heaven  for  every  ill  of  the  body 
and  soul.  Even  in  matters  which  required  human 
judgment  rather  than  divine  interposition,  such  as 
quarrels  between  neighbors,  ordinary  jealousies  be- 
tween peddlers,  or  where  stray  goats  took  a  particu- 
lar fancy  to  the  cabbage  in  some  pious  widow's 
garden,  they  came  to  him ;  and  as  his  simple  word 
had  the  power  of  commanding  obedience  from  be- 
ings natural  and  supernatural,  he  made  every  one 
happy.  To  him  also  came  farmers  whose  crops 
promised  poorly  on  account  of  tardy  rain,  and,  be- 
ing master  of  the  highest  mysteries,  he  commanded 
the  elements  and  they  obeyed  (Taanith  24). 

But  none  appreciated  his  worth  more  than  his 
wife.  She  knew  that  temporal  poverty  with  'Hani- 
nah  meant  everlasting  bliss  with  him  in  paradise. 
And  so  jealous  was  she  that  her  beloved  saint  should 


RABBI     HANINAH    BEN    DOSA  79 

have  his  undiminished  share  in  the  world  to  come 
that  she  refused  earthly  wealth,  though  she  had  it 
in  her  power  to  get  as  much  as  she  desired.  For  she, 
too,  was  beloved  of  the  Lord  and  He  performed 
miracles  in  her  favor.  But  of  wealth  she  would  have 
none.  Though  a  wonderful  woman,  Mrs.  'Haninah 
was  not  without  that  housewifely  pride  which  does 
not  permit  an  inquisitive  neighbor  to  pry  into  one's 
pots.  And  the  good  neighbor  women,  who  may 
have  thought  that  there  was  something  wrong  with 
the  'Haninahs  after  all,  since  he  could  assist  every- 
body else  and  remained  so  very  poor  himself,  were 
often  eager  to  find  out  how  the  'Haninahs  lived; 
what  they  dined  on;  whether  they  had  plenty  of 
Sabbath  loaves  and  fish  and  meat  as  was  the  custom 
and  usage  in  Jewish  households  on  the  Sabbath. 
But  'Haninah's  wife  was  as  shrewd  as  she  was  holy, 
and  on  Friday  afternoons  she  would  make  a  great 
fire  in  the  oven,  and  the  neighbor  women,  seeing  the 
volume  of  smoke  issuing  from  the  smoke-stack, 
would  whisper  to  each  other  that  'Haninah's  wife 
must  be  baking  bread  and  roasting  meat  for  the 
Sabbath.  But  there  was  nothing  in  the  oven  save 
the  fire,  which  was  a  weak  reflex  of  the  holy  fire  that 
burned  in  the  great  soul  of  that  pious  and  God-fear- 
ing woman.  But  the  neighbor  women  were  burning 
with  a  curiosity  to  peep  in  to  find  out.  And  as 
woman  will  have  her  way,  though  the  way  be  some- 
time far  from  the  heavenly,  even  so  did  one  of  them 
go  by  stealth  into  the  kitchen  while  'Haninah's  wife 
was  away  and  look  into  the  oven.  What  she  saw 
astounded  her  greatly ;  for  the  oven  was  filled  with 


8o      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

many  loaves,  just  turning  to  a  golden  brown,  and 
dishes  of  pastry  and  meats.  "It  is  a  miracle,"  the 
inquisitive  woman  said  to  the  others,  "a  miracle,  I 
tell  you ;  for  what  I  saw  in  that  oven  is  fit  for  the 
khadi  or  the  president  of  the  Sanhedrin."  And  a 
miracle  it  was,  indeed,  wrought  by  the  Lord  for  His 
beloved,  so  as  not  to  bring  them  to  shame  before 
malicious  and  inquisitive  eyes.6 

In  her  younger  days  'Haninah's  wife  may  have  had 
moments  when  her  heart  longed  for  the  comforts 
which  ordinary  wealth  affords.  When  the  Temple 
in  Jerusalem  was  as  yet  undefiled  by  heathen  hands, 
and  the  thousands  of  men  and  women  dressed  in 
festive  garb,  carrying  offerings  of  doves  and  spices, 
or  holding  high  the  slender  palm  and  the  aromatic 
citron,  while  singing  joyful  psalms  as  they  went  on 
their  pilgrimage  to  the  sanctuary  of  the  Lord ;  when 
she  beheld  the  youths  and  maidens  radiant  with 
happiness,  then  she  may  have  had  regrets,  longings, 
desires.  She  may  have  wished  to  be,  if  but  for  a 
moment,  rich,  or  at  least  relieved  of  oppressive  pov- 
erty. It  was  during  one  such  moment  of  depression 
that  'Haninah  found  her.  He  so  loved  her  that  his 
soul  was  smitten  with  sorrow  at  her  sadness  and  he 
asked  the  cause  thereof.  Amidst  tears  and  sobs  she 
told  him  of  the  yearning  of  her  heart  and  begged 
him  to  pray  Heaven  for  wealth.  'Haninah  turned 
pale;  not  that  he  feared  the  Lord's  refusal,  for  the 
celestial  voice  had  regretfully  exclaimed  that  "the 
entire  world  is  supported  on  account  of '  Haninah, 
and  he  is  satisfied  with  a  measure  of  figs."  And 
the  popular  voice  was  fully  on  the  side  of  Heaven. 


RABBI    'HANINAH    BEN   DOSA  8l 

'Haninah,  they  thought,  ought  to  be,  if  not  wealthy, 
at  least  comfortable.  But  'Haninah  knew  that  com- 
forts in  this  world  were  merely  an  advance  from  the 
world  to  come,  and  that  he  would  miss  there  what 
he  would  have  enjoyed  here.  However,  he  could 
refuse  his  wife  nothing,  since  what  she  asked  was 
really  very  reasonable.  He  promised  to  pray  for 
riches.  When  night  came  'Haninah  retired  to  his 
chamber  to  pray  and  his  wife  went  to  sleep. 

And,  sleeping,  she  dreamed.  In  her  dream  she 
had  a  vision  of  paradise.  She  saw  the  righteous  of 
all  Israel  clothed  in  shining  garments,  crowned  with 
jewelled  crowns,  seated  upon  chairs  of  gold  at  golden 
tripods  and  contemplating  the  shekhinah,  the  su- 
preme glory  of  the  Lord. 

One  seat  was  unoccupied  and  before  it  stood  a 
tripod  like  the  others,  but  wanting  one  of  its  sup- 
ports. She  asked  for  whom  it  was. thus  placed,  and 
the  angel,  with  a  look  of  sadness,  replied  it  was  the 
place  of  'Haninah  ben  Dosa.  ' '  But  why,  my  Lord, 
she  asked,  "is  the  tripod  thus  maimed?"  "Because 
he  among  the  Just  who  receives  part  of  his  reward 
on  earth  forfeits  that  part  in  eternity."  'Haninah's 
wife  awoke,  and  she  went  to  tell  the  strange  dream 
to  her  husband.  She  found  him  in  his  room,  and 
beside  him  lay  a  bar  of  gold  like  the  leg  of  one  of 
the  tripods  which  she  had  seen  in  her  dream.  He 
bade  her  take  it  and  use  it  for  her  wants.  But  the 
woman  thought  of  the  angel's  words  and  her  heart 
was  grieved. 

"I  will  not  touch  it,  my  husband,"  she  said,  "and 
do  you  pray  at  once  to  Heaven  to  take  back  its  gift, 


82       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

unless  thou  wouldst  forfeit  thy  share  in  the  world  to 
come." 

"But  it  was  at  thy  asking  that  I  prayed  for  gold," 
he  rejoined. 

"Nay,  but  I  have  seen  awful  things  in  a  dream," 
she  answered. 

"Ah,  then,"  said  Ben  Dosa,  "thou  knowest  now 
that  our  glory  would  be  less  in  paradise  by  as  much 
as  we  had  received  here?  " 

"Yes,  my  beloved  one,  I  have  seen,  and  now 
pray  the  Lord  to  take  back  His  gift." 

So  'Haninah  prayed  again  and  the  angel  took  away 
the  golden  bar,  and  'Haninah  and  his  wife  were 
happy  in  their  great  poverty.8 

Then  'Haninah  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  in 
gratitude  for  the  favor  shown  him.  As  he  went,  the 
roads  were  full  of  cattle  which  pilgrims  were  bring- 
ing to  offer  in  the  Temple,  and  'Haninah  desired  to 
make  an  offering,  too,  but  he  had  not  the  means. 
As  he  walked  sadly,  he  saw  a  block  of  marble  in  a 
desert  place,  and  he  thought  with  himself:  "I  have 
found  an  offering  meet  for  the  Temple."  So  he 
sought  for  tools,  and  cut  and  polished  the  rough 
stone  till  it  was  a  perfect  block;  but  he  knew  not 
how  he  would  get  it  to  Jerusalem.  He  asked  some 
pilgrims  to  help  him,  but  they  would  not  unless  he 
would  pay  them  fifty  pieces  of  silver.  'Haninah  had 
only  five,  so  the  pilgrims  left  him.  But  five  men 
came  along,  who  were  angels,  and  they  agreed  to 
carry  the  block  for  five  pieces,  if  he  would  bear  a 
part  of  the  load.  'Haninah  accepted  thankfully,  and 
they  carried  the  offering  to  the  Temple.    The  others 


RABBI    'HANINAH   BEN   DOSA  83 

bore  it  into  the  chamber  where  marble  was  stored, 
and  'Haninah  followed  with  the  money  to  pay  them  ; 
but  when  he  entered  they  had  disappeared,  and  the 
guardians  of  the  Temple  told  him  that  they  were  not 
porters  but  ministering  angels  who  had  brought  his 
offering." 

So  'Haninah  went  back  glad,  and  when  he  came  to 
his  house  it  was  Friday.  As  he  entered,  he  heard 
his  daughter  weeping.  Her  mother  asked  the  reason 
of  her  tears,  and  the  maiden  told  how  by  mistake 
she  had  filled  the  Sabbath  lamp  with  vinegar  instead 
of  oil. 

"Weep  not,"  said  'Haninah  as  he  entered,  "for  He 
who  hath  made  oil  to  burn  will  also  cause  vinegar  to 
burn." 

And  so  it  was.  The  lamp  burned  clear  all  night 
and  all  day  until  the  stars  on  the  Sabbath  evening 
and  the  time  of  the  prayer  of  separation  had  come.10 

'Haninah  felt  that  the  liberal  Hillelites  cared  not 
for  his  ways  and  would  be  glad  to  deride  him,  but  he 
was  undisturbed.  He  continued  his  task  of  purify- 
ing the  life  of  the  Jewish  people  on  their  own  soil, 
and  of  asking  aid  from  God  rather  than  man  in  its 
execution.  He  taught  the  people  that  He  who 
could  work  wonders  in  ordinary  life  might  also,  if 
He  willed,  restore  the  glory  of  Israel  and  the  Tem- 
ple. He  regarded  the  men  who  trusted  in  heathen 
help  as  of  the  lighter  wing  of  the  faith.  Ben  Zak- 
kai  had  asked  Vespasian  to  send  his  physician  to 
heal  Rabbi  Zadok  when  he  escaped  from  Jerusalem ; 
'Haninah  would  never  have  asked  such  a  favor.  His 
confidence    was  wholly   in  supernatural  aid.     Men 


84      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

derided  him  as  the  "miracle-worker,"  but  when 
sorrow  befell  these  same  mockers  came  to  seek  his 
aid.  Among  them  was  a  second  Gamaliel,  presi- 
dent of  the  Sanhedrin.  Gamaliel's  son  was  sick  unto 
death,  and  the  doctors  found  their  skill  unavailing 
to  cure  him.  Some  of  his  friends  urged  Gamaliel  to 
ask  the  help  of  Ben  Dosa,  and  he  did,  though  un- 
willingly. When  Gamaliel's  messengers  brought  the 
request  'Haninah  went  up  to  the  loft  of  his  cottage 
and  remained  there  some  time  in  prayer.  When  he 
came  down  'his  face  was  resplendent  with  super- 
human light.  He  told  the  messengers  that  the  boy 
was  safe,  and  that  even  then  he  had  asked  for  water. 
They  asked  him:  "Art  thou  then  a  prophet?" 
And  he  said:  "I  am  neither  a  prophet  nor  the  son 
of  a  prophet,  but  when  my  prayer  floweth  smoothly, 
I  know  it  is  granted." 

The  messengers  noted  the  time  and  went  back  to 
their  master. 

"' Haninah 's  prayer  hath  been  in  vain,"  said  the 
latter;  "for  ere  you  reached  his  house  my  son  sat  up 
and  asked  for  water." 

But  when  the  students  told  him  what  'Haninah  had 
said,  Gamaliel  was  silent.  He  appreciated  the  power 
of  '  Haninah 's  prayer.11 

In  the  estimation  of  the  great  men  what  lowered 
the  value  of  'Haninah's  work  was  the  ready  exercise 
of  his  power  in  trivial  matters.  Being  caught  in  a 
rain,  he  said:  "All  people  rejoice  at  this  rain,  while 
I  am  drenched."  And  the  rain  suddenly  ceased. 
Arrived  at  home  he  heard  people  say  that  more  rain 
was  needed   to  secure  a  good   harvest.     "Then," 


RABBI    'HANINAH   BEN   DOSA  85 

said  he,  "as  I  am  under  shelter  there  is  nothing  to 
keep  heaven  from  giving  rain  to  the  earth."  He 
had  scarcely  finished  the  word  when  the  rain  started 
again."  One  day  a  widow  came  to  him  and  tear- 
fully told  of  a  mishap  in  the  building  of  her  cottage. 
"The  carpenter  finds  the  cross-beams  too  short,  and 
I  am  too  poor  to  buy  new  ones,"  she  cried.  "What 
is  thy  name?'  asked  'Haninah.  "My  name  is 
Ikho,"  said  the  widow.  "Ikho,  the  beams  are  long 
enough,"  said  'Haninah,  and  bade  her  go.13  Full  of 
faith,  the  woman  told  the  carpenter  to  try  the  same 
beams  again.  The  man  shook  his  head,  but  did  as 
requested,  and  to  his  inexpressible  astonishment  the 
beams  projected  an  ell  on  either  side.11  On  another 
occasion  Rabbi  'Haninah  again  demonstrated  his 
power  in  a  manner  equally  marvellous.  He  had 
several  goats,  and  these,  with  their  natural  inclina- 
tion for  mischief,  invaded  the  neighboring  vegetable 
gardens.  But,  being  brought  up  in  a  saintly  atmos- 
phere, they  nibbled  a  leaf  here  and  there,  but  did  no 
further  damage.  The  owners  of  the  gardens,  how- 
ever, would  take  no  chances  on  goats,  ever  so  pious, 
where  flowering  vegetables  offered  temptation,  and 
told  the  Rabbi  to  keep  his  goats  where  they  would 
be  less  dangerous  to  people's  cabbage.  However, 
the  saint  knew  his  goats ;  he  knew  that  they  would 
go  against  a  pack  of  wild  animals  rather  than  steal 
a  blade  of  grass  not  their  master's. 

"My  goats  have  done  no  damage  to  your  gar- 
dens," said  he;  "but  if  it  be  as  you  say,  let  bears 
come  and  kill  them :  if  not,  then  let  each  goat  come 
forth  carrying  a  bear  upon  its  horns."     The  words 


86      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

were  scarcely  uttered  when  'Haninah's  goats  ap- 
peared, and,  to  the  discomfiture  of  the  neighbors, 
were  bearing  expiring  bears  upon  their  horns,  thus 
making  obvious  their  innocence.16 

The  opposition  to  'Haninah  was  not  always  pas- 
sive. Those  men  who  later  on  played  an  important 
part  in  the  affairs  of  the  intellectual  commonwealth 
and  who  worked  for  progress  and  a  better  policy  to- 
ward the  victorious  enemy,  Rome ;  those  leaders  of 
thought,  disciples  of  the  sagacious  Ben  Zakkai,  saw 
in  'Haninah  and  his  adherents  a  hindrance  to  over- 
come which  they  bent  every  energy  ;  and  but  for  the 
sincere  piety  and  simplicity  of  'Haninah,  there  might 
have  been  enacted  a  tragedy  as  shocking  as  that  on 
Calvary.  The  Rabbis  were  as  yet  in  the  throes  of 
fear  which  the  great  national  calamity  had  produced. 
Rome  needed  but  the  slightest  pretext  to  swoop 
down  upon  them  and  annihilate  the  last  vestige  saved 
from  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem,  and  such  a  pretext 
could  readily  be  found  in  the  actions  of  such  men  as 
'Haninah.  If  endowed  with  some  ambition  it  would 
have  required  but  the  turn  of  a  straw  to  raise  a  re- 
bellion, and  this  the  Rabbis  were  determined  to 
prevent.  Hence  they  not  infrequently  asked  him 
"catch  questions"  somewhat  similar  to  those  the 
pseudo-Pharisees  asked  Jesus.  Moreover,  the  word 
had  gone  forth  that  with  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  prophecy  had  ceased,  a  warning  intended  to 
subdue  ambitious  aspirants  to  messianic  distinction 
or  prophetic  authority.18  The  "men  of  miracles," 
therefore,  had  to  be  on  their  guard  against  those  im- 
placable protestants  of  the  old  synagogue;    for  at 


RABBI    'HANINAH    BEN   DOSA  87 

the  least  agitation  of  the  masses  they  would  have 
been  the  first  to  be  delivered  into  the  ever  Moloch 
hands  of  Rome.  It  is  equally  noteworthy  that  the 
men  who  were  sacrificed  by  those  in  power  were 
always  those  of  a  sect  with  whom  the  latter  had 
much  sympathy,  since  they  professed  the  same  faith 
and  were  in  the  eyes  of  the  Romans  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  Hebrews.  This  diplomatic  cruelty  was 
practised  in  every  case  where  a  person's  existence 
and  political  faith  were  a  menace  to  the  peace  of  the 
majority.  And  as  surely  as  Rome  knew  no  differ- 
ence between  Jew  and  Jew,  so  surely  was  a  man's 
fate  sealed  whom  the  scholars  saw  fit  to  accuse. 
The  men  of  miracles  were  the  more  dangerous  be- 
cause of  their  great  popularity,  a  popularity  seldom 
attained  by  the  scholars,  who  repelled  by  their  pride. 
No  humble  man  dared  approach  a  famous  scholar, 
whereas  the  "saint"  lent  a  willing  ear  and  ready 
help  to  the  lowliest  and  the  most  ignorant  of  his 
people. 

It  was  precisely  this  which  aroused  suspicion  and 
upon  which  the  scholars  frowned  as  they  found  no 
biblical  or  politico-national  ground  for  decisive  ac- 
tion. During  the  second  century  they  found  such 
grounds,  but  they  were  then  swayed  by  the  resist- 
less power  of  a  master  mind,  a  mind  trained  in  the 
cunning  of  the  schools  and  aflame  with  the  un- 
quenchable fire  of  patriotism.  Men  like  Rabbi 
'Haninah,  therefore,  were  watched  and  their  every 
action  scrutinized.  Whatever  he  did  by  means  of 
prayer  they  could  afford  to  let  pass,  but  woe  to 
him    if   he   claimed   a  more    direct    power!     These 


88       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

threats  are  often  clothed  in  the  garb  of  a  story ;  but 
to  one  acquainted  with  the  spirit  of  the  Talmud  and 
the  history  and  the  conditions  of  those  times  it  is  as 
clear  as  the  light  of  day.  However,  vigilance  and 
cunning  were  not  altogether  on  the  side  of  the 
scholars;  the  "men  of  miracles  "  knew  their  delicate 
position  and  spoke  accordingly.  These  thoughts 
are  best  illustrated  in  the  following  story : 

The  daughter  of  Rabbi  Nehuniah,  the  grave-dig- 
ger, fell  into  a  deep  cavern  beneath  a  grave. 

They  came  and  told  Rabbi  'Haninah  of  it. 

"Peace!  "  said  he,  and  the  people  went  away,  sat- 
isfied that  the  maiden  would  come  out  unharmed. 

An  hour  passed,  yet  the  maiden  did  not  appear 
and  the  anxious  people  again  went  to  the  Rabbi. 

"Peace!  "  he  said,  and  remained  quiet.  But  after 
the  third  hour  the  people,  believing  that  the  Rabbi's 
power  had  not  been  exerted  sufficiently  to  rescue  the 
maiden,  came  again  and  clamored  for  relief. 

"She  hath  this  moment  left  the  cavern,"  said 
Rabbi  'Haninah. 

A  few  moments  later  a  great  noise  was  heard,  and 
soon  the  people  came  to  the  Rabbi's  house  with  the 
rescued  maiden. 

"My  daughter,"  said  the  saint,  "who  took  thee 
from  the  cavern? " 

"I  saw  a  he-goat  which  was  led  by  an  old  man, 
and  I  followed  them  out  of  the  cavern,"  she  replied, 
to  the  astonishment  of  all  the  people. 

And  they  [the  scholars]  asked  him : 

"Art  thou,  then,  a  prophet?" 

"I  am  neither  a  prophet  nor  the  son  of  a  prophet," 


RABBI    'HANINAH   BEN   DOSA  89 

he  replied,  "  but  I  felt  it  was  impossible  that  a  grave 
dug  by  a  pious  man  like  Rabbi  Nehuniah  should 
prove  disastrous  to  his  daughter."  " 

It  was  a  clever  reply  and  the  scholars  were  forced 
to  leave  the  "man  of  miracles  "  to  pursue  his  own 
works,  trusting  that  his  piety,  which  was  sincere, 
would  keep  him  from  causing  practical  mischief. 

Soon,  however,  matters  of  graver  importance  en- 
grossed the  attention  of  the  Rabbis.  Christianity 
began  to  assert  itself;  traditional  differences  among 
the  scholars  threatened  Sanhedric  disruption ;  two 
intellectual  giants,  disciples  of  the  great  Rabbi  Yo- 
chanan  ben  Zakkai,  came  upon  the  scene  and  mus- 
tered their  forces  for  supremacy  in  the  religious  life 
of  the  Hebrews.  Great  was  that  battle,  loud  the 
clash  of  opinion,  and  the  stream  of  mental  activity 
was,  for  a  time  at  least,  turned  in  a  different  direc- 
tion. But  it  was  only  for  a  time.  Even  amidst  the 
noises  of  academic  disputations,  the  weapons  were 
forged  to  drive  the  arch-enemy,  Rome,  from  the 
country.  And  the  men  who  prepared  the  way  were 
not  mystics,  who,  like  'Haninah  ben  Dosa,  hid  their 
political  convictions  behind  the  garb  of  piety  and  the 
performance  of  miracles.  It  is  true  their  thoughts, 
words,  and  actions  were  exceedingly  guarded,  but 
there  is  not  the  least  doubt  about  their  aims.  And 
the  man  who  afterwards  carried  these  ideas  into  fear- 
ful effect  sat  at  the  feet  of  these  intellectual  giants ; 
he  drank  in  every  one  of  their  words,  and  silently 
but  thoroughly  prepared  the  way  for  the  greatest 
and  last  battle  against  the  Roman  yoke.  In  Rabbi 
Akibah  the  stern  doctrines  of  Rabbi  Eliezer  and  the 


go      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

nationalistic  spirit  of  Rabbi  '  Haninah  ben  Dosa  found 
an  ardent  supporter.  Eagerly,  therefore,  did  he  lis- 
ten to  the  great  disputes  which  were  carried  on  be- 
tween the  matchless  Rabbi  Josua  ben  Hananiah 
and  the  great  Rabbi  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos.  The 
former  had  taken  Ben  Zakkai's  diplomacy  as  his  sole 
guide  in  life,  while  the  latter,  who  had  retained  all 
the  learning  of  his  master,  was  more  inclined  toward 
the  national  policy  of  'Haninah  ben  Dosa ;  but,  vastly 
more  blunt  and  outspoken  in  his  ideas  than  'Haninah, 
he  failed  of  his  purpose  and  caused  himself  many 
years  of  sorrow. 


CHAPTER   V 

RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN    HYRKANOS 

TRADITION  in  Judaism  is  like  a  colored  thread 
running  all  through  the  woof  of  a  cloth.  One 
can  hardly  say  where  it  begins,  yet  it  is  never 
broken.  So  it  is  with  the  teachings  of  the  great 
masters  in  Israel.  They  appear  in  successive  gen- 
erations, but  each  stands  as  the  pupil  of  some  earlier 
teacher  whose  lessons  he  has  received,  and  which  in 
turn  he  transmits  to  his  own  disciples,  amplified  by 
his  own  experiences  and  thoughts. 

At  the  time  when  writing  was  rare,  it  was  by  word 
of  mouth  mainly  that  the  wisdom  of  one  generation 
was  transmitted  to  those  that  came  after  it.  It  was 
then  a  primary  object  with  every  great  thinker  to 
gather  around  him  a  school  of  disciples  to  whom  as 
intellectual  children  he  might  leave  the  inheritance 
of  the  thoughts  that  were  formed  in  his  own  mind. 

Ben  Zakkai  showed  a  special  care  in  the  choice  of 
such  disciples  from  his  numerous  scholars.  One  he 
prized  for  his  quick  intelligence  and  ready  wit,  an- 
other for  his  marvellous  powers  of  memory,  and  an- 
other for  his  lofty  soul,  pure  heart,  and  burning 
eloquence. 

It  was  for  the  last-named  quality  that  he  specially 

91 


92       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

favored  Elazar  ben  Arakh.  He  chose  him  as  his 
chief  assistant  in  his  school,  and  in  his  heart  he  de- 
sired him  for  his  own  successor.  He  did  not  wish, 
however,  to  impose  him  on  his  pupils  merely  by  the 
power  of  his  magisterial  authority.  He  desired  that 
the  merit  which  he  recognized  in  Elazar  should  be 
also  acknowledged  by  his  fellow-students,  and  for 
that  end  he  was  wont  to  hold  exercises  of  intel- 
lectual powers  among  them  by  submitting  questions 
for  public  discussion.    One  may  serve  as  an  example. 

"My  children,"  said  the  master,  "let  each  of 
you  say  what  virtue  is  the  most  important  for  man 
that  he  may  walk  the  straight  path  during  his  life." 

"A  good  eye,"  said  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos.  "An 
eye  that  desireth  nothing  which  belongeth  to  others 
is  the  chief  virtue." 

"A  worthy  associate,"  said  Josua  ben  Hananiah. 
"A  worthy  associate  keepeth  man  from  evil  ways." 

"A  good  neighbor,"  said  Yosay.  "A  good  neigh- 
bor promoteth  peace,  and  peace  bringeth  happiness. " 

"Prescience,"  said  Simon.  "When  one  can  fore- 
see the  consequences  of  an  action  he  is  sure  to  make 
no  mistake  in  life." 

"A  good  heart,"  said  Elazar. 

And  the  master,  weighing  the  words  of  each,  said  : 
"The  answer  of  Elazar  is  the  best;  for  he  who 
hath  a  good  heart  possesseth  the  noblest  of  all  vir- 
tues; he  is  sure  to  pursue  the  right  path  in  life;  for 
he  is  sure  to  have  all  the  other  virtues  you  enumer- 
ated." 

This  preference  established  Elazar's  position  in 
the  school,  but  in  order  to  raise  him  to  the  dignity 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN    HVRKANOS  93 

of  Rabbi  it  was  necessary  to  show  the  other  disciples 
that  Elazar  was  their  superior  not  only  in  ethical 
teaching,  but  also  in  philosophical  lore,  in  the  mys- 
ticism which  is  contained  in  the  study  of  the  mer- 
kabah,  the  vision  of  Ezekiel,  and  kindred  subjects, 
— the  metaphysics  of  that  day. 

The  Talmud  thus  tells  how  it  was  done : 

"One  day  Rabbi  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai  was  riding 
on  the  highway,  and  Elazar  ben  Arakh  was  behind 
with  others,  and  Elazar  said  :  '  Rabbi,  repeat  to  me  a 
passage  from  the  merkabah.'  And  Rabbi  Yochanan 
replied :  '  I  told  thee  the  merkabah  is  not  repeated 
aloud,  but  each  one  reasons  upon  it  alone,  according 
to  his  individual  understanding.'  'Then  permit  me 
to  discourse  upon  it,'  said  Elazar.  'Do  so,'  replied 
Rabbi  Yochanan. 

"They  dismounted  among  the  trees  and  Ben  Ar- 
akh began  to  elucidate  the  merkabah.  And  lo !  a 
fire  came  from  heaven  enveloping  Rabbi  Yochanan, 
Elazar,  and  the  trees ;  and  there  was  heard  celestial 
music  among  the  trees,  and  voices  of  angels  that 
praised  God  for  that  such  wisdom  was  given  unto 
mortals.  And  when  the  great  Ben  Arakh  ceased, 
Rabbi  Yochanan  rose,  kissed  his  forehead,  and  said: 

"  'Praised  be  the  Lord  of  Israel,  who  hath  given 
our  father  Abraham  a  son  who  can  penetrate  and 
make  clear  the  workings  of  the  merkabah.  There 
are  some  who  preach  fair  but  do  not  act  fairly ;  thou 
[Ben  Arakh]  art  fair  in  speech  and  fair  in  action. 
Hail  unto  thee,  Father  Abraham,  that  Elazar  ben 
Arakh  is  of  thy  seed.'  "  ' 

It  is  to  misunderstand  the  spirit  of  the  Talmud  to 


94       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

suppose  that  this  strange  tale  was  to  be  taken  in  a 
literal  sense.  It  would  be  childish  to  think  that  any 
supernatural  interposition  was  needed  to  justify  the 
selection  of  Elazar  to  the  office  for  which  he  was  so 
well  qualified,  and  the  talmudic  writers  were  not 
childish  in  any  sense.  The  Oriental  mind  is  attached 
to  imagery,  and  loves  to  speak  in  parables.  The 
Hebrews  of  the  time  we  speak  of  had,  moreover, 
good  reasons  to  conceal  as  far  as  possible  their  na- 
tional and  religious  practices  from  the  notice  of  the 
jealous  Roman  officials  who  regarded  every  Jew  as 
a  disguised  rebel  against  the  empire.  The  tale  of 
the  miraculous  fire,  if  carried  to  Roman  ears,  would 
only  be  laughed  at,  but  to  the  Jewish  expert  its 
meaning  was  easy  of  comprehension.  It  told  in  fig- 
urative language  how  Elazar  had  been  duly  invested 
with  authority  to  teach  the  Law  by  the  recognized 
master  in  Israel.  The  "highway  "  of  discussion  is 
the  preliminary  examination  of  his  qualifications 
before  the  other  disciples,  figured  by  the  trees. 
Elazar's  knowledge  of  the  practical  application  of 
the  law,  the  Jialakhah,  had  been  already  known,  as 
well  as  the  soundness  of  his  moral  teachings.  The 
master  had  to  test  him  further  in  the  more  recondite 
doctrines  of  metaphysics.  His  eloquence  and  his  in- 
sight are  recognized  by  the  fire,  that  is,  by  the  en- 
thusiasm which  seizes  his  audience  when  he  speaks. 
The  praise  of  the  master  and  the  kiss  bestowed  on 
the  disciple  conveyed  the  tidings  of  his  elevation 
to  the  rabbinical  dignity  to  every  Hebrew  skilled  in 
the  law. 

Ben  Zakkai,  though  by  the  favor  of  Vespasian  he 


RABBI   ELIEZER   BEN   HVRKANOS  95 

conducted  his  studies  undisturbed,  was  careful  not 
to  let  the  Roman  masters  of  Palestine  know  that  he 
was  training  up  teachers  and  masters  in  Israel,  and 
forging  weapons  for  an  intellectual  and  moral  strug- 
gle with  the  oppressor.  The  story  of  Elazar's  elec- 
tion was  then  told  to  the  faithful  in  Israel  under  the 
figure  of  this  narrative. 

Elazar  needed  no  further  credentials  to  command 
the  respect  of  the  people.  His  own  character  was 
enough.  Generous  and  lovable,  he  was  also  power- 
ful as  a  disputant  and  recognized  as  such. 

"Know  how  to  answer  an  epicurean,"  was  a 
favorite  maxim  of  his. 

By  "epicurean,"  apparently,  are  meant  the  follow- 
ers of  the  sect  of  gnostics,  a  spurious  Christian  creed 
which  combined  the  worst  immoralities  of  Greek 
paganism  with  a  few  fragments  of  Christ's  doctrines. 
Epicurus,  the  master  of  the  Greek  school  of  thought, 
which  held  pleasure  to  be  the  highest  good,  was 
to  the  Jewish  mind  typical  of  unrestrained  sensu- 
ality. Hence  the  name  was  generally  applied  to 
scoffers  at  the  rigid  rules  of  the  Mosaic  law. 

On  the  death  of  his  master,  Ben  Zakkai,  Elazar 
took  up  his  abode  in  Emmaus,  a  town  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Palestine  famous  for  the  medicinal  virtues  of 
its  hot  springs.  He  intended  to  establish  a  school 
there  and  at  the  same  time  to  restore  his  health, 
which  had  been  seriously  affected.  He  never  carried 
out  his  project.  He  seemed  to  sink  into  a  lethargy 
in  his  new  abode.  He  wrote  little  or  nothing,  and  in 
a  few  years  he  passed  out  of  sight.  The  talmudic 
authors  in  two  or  three  places  a  state  that  the  great 


96      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Rabbi  "forgot  his  learning."  It  is  not  impossible 
that  there  is  a  hidden  meaning  to  these  statements. 
In  the  mountain  village  Elazar  had  probably  met 
with  Christians,  and  been  cured  of  his  ailments 
among  them.  His  acceptance  of  the  faith  in  Christ 
would  readily  be  described  as  "forgetting  the  Law" 
by  talmudic  imagination. 

Ben  Arakh  was  the  admitted  head  of  the  college 
of  students  formed  by  Ben  Zakkai.  Eliezer  ben 
Hyrkanos  was  next  to  him  in  reputation  as  a  scholar. 
His  memory  was  prodigious  and  he  retained  without 
apparent  effort  the  contents  of  a  library  on  its  tab- 
lets. Indeed,  so  well  stored  was  he  with  the  maxims 
and  decisions  of  the  famous  teachers  of  all  Jewish 
schools  that  men  often  taxed  him  with  betraying  the 
cause  of  the  Hillelites,  to  whom  he  properly  be- 
longed, by  decisions  made  in  the  spirit  of  Sham- 
maiism.3  Eliezer  was  utterly  indifferent  to  popular 
favor,  and  was  stubborn  in  his  own  views.  If  the 
Sanhedrin  decided,  as  it  sometimes  did,  contrary  to 
what  Eliezer  believed  to  be  the  genuine  tradition  of 
the  law,  he  would  not  yield.  Opinions,  he  held, 
should  be  weighed,  not  merely  counted.  So  far  did 
he  carry  his  tenacity  that  he  was  finally  laid  under 
sentence  of  excommunication  by  the  majority  in  the 
Sanhedrin.  Gamaliel,  its  president  and  brother-in- 
law  to  Ben  Hyrkanos,  was  obliged  to  pronounce  the 
sentence.4 

Eliezer's  stubbornness  was  inherited  from  his 
father,  a  noble  of  the  highest  race  by  birth,6  but  by 
choice  a  farmer  with  no  taste  for  books  or  learn- 
ing.     Eliezer  alone  among   his  brothers  desired  to 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN   HYRKANOS  97 

become  a  scholar.     The  story  of  his  choice  is  told 
in  characteristic  figurative  style. 

As  Eliezer  was  ploughing  one  day  a  keen  longing 
for  learning  came  on  him.  He  stopped  his  horse, 
sat  down,  and  wept.  His  father  came  to  ask  the 
cause  of  his  behavior. 

"Why  dost  thou  weep?  "  he  asked.  "Dost  thou 
dislike  the  field  thou  art  ploughing?  If  so,  change 
places  with  another.  Or  dost  thou  dislike  the  whole 
task?" 

Eliezer  continued  to  weep,  and  the  father  rather 
hotly  asked  again  the  reason  for  such  behavior. 

"I  desire  to  study  the  law,"  replied  Eliezer  at 
last. 

"Thou  art  over  old  to  begin  now,"  said  the  old 
man.  "At  twenty-eight  years  it  is  time  to  marry. 
Thou  mayest  later  send  thy  children  to  school,  but 
it  is  too  late  for  thee." 

Eliezer  made  no  answer  and  his  father  was  mysti- 
fied. His  son  began  to  pine  away  and  for  two  weeks 
he  could  hardly  eat  or  sleep.  Then,  while  in  the 
field,  he  again  sat  down  and  wept  bitterly.  An  old 
man  came  by  and  asked : 

"Why  dost  thou  weep,  son  of  Hyrkanos?" 

"Because  I  long  to  study  the  law,"  Eliezer 
replied. 

"Then  go  to  Jerusalem,  to  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai, 
if  thou  wouldst  study  it,"  said  the  old  man,  who 
was  no  other  than  the  prophet  Elijah  himself,  and 
who  then  vanished  from  sight. 

Eliezer  arose  and  walked  to  Jerusalem.  He  found 
the  college  of  the  famous  master  and  addressed  him 


98       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

in  a  voice  broken  with  sobs.     The  astonished  Rabbi 
asked  the  reason  of  his  grief. 

"Because  I  desire  to  study  the  law,"  was  the 
answer. 

"Whose  son  art  thou?"  asked  Rabbi  Yochanan ; 
but  Eliezer  was  silent. 

"Canst  thou  read  the  prayers?"  was  the  next 
question,  and  Eliezer  confessed  he  could  not. 

That  a  grown  man  who  could  not  even  read  his 
prayers  should  want  to  be  a  student  amused  the 
Rabbi,  who  jocosely  offered  to  teach  him  the 
prayers.  Eliezer  only  wept  afresh  at  the  evident 
sarcasm  of  this  answer. 

"Why  weepest  thou  now?  "  asked  the  master. 

"It  is  the  law  I  would  study,"  Eliezer  persisted. 

Ben  Zakkai  was  struck  with  the  singular  earnest- 
ness of  the  appeal  and  gently  said : 

"Son,  I  will  teach  thee  myself  two  lessons  in  the 
law  each  week;  they  will  be  decisions  which  thou 
must  commit  to  memory." 

He  then  drew  the  new-comer  apart  from  the  others 
and  gave  him  some  comments  on  points  of  the  law. 
Eliezer  listened  with  rapture  and  drank  in  every 
word  of  the  master.  The  latter  finally  concluded, 
and,  telling  the  novice  to  return  in  a  week  for  ex- 
amination, sent  him  away.  On  the  Rabbi's  friendly 
suggestion,  two  residents  of  the  city,  the  priest 
Yosay  and  Josua  ben  Hananiah,  the  teacher,  offered 
a  home  and  food  to  the  new  disciple.  He  went  to 
the  priest's  house,  was  entertained  hospitably,  and 
then  retired  to  repeat  to  himself  the  lesson  he  had 
received,  no  word  of  which  escaped  his  singularly 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN   HYRKANOS  99 

retentive  memory.  He  repeated  it  over  and  over 
during  the  week  with  such  anxiety  that  he  would 
not  even  take  time  to  eat.  At  the  fixed  time  he 
came  to  Ben  Zakkai. 

The  master  received  him  with  a  smile.  He  fully 
expected  a  troublesome  hour  in  going  over  the  first 
lesson  of  an  ignorant  man,  but  was  astounded  when 
the  novice  recited  his  lesson  word  for  word  and  com- 
mented on  it  with  the  sagacity  of  a  master  mind. 

This  man 's  mind  is  like  a  cemented  cistern,  which 
lets  no  drop  of  water  filter  away,"  exclaimed  Ben 
Zakkai  in  delight.  He  bent  down  to  embrace  his 
pupil,  but  the  latter's  breath,  owing  to  his  long  fast, 
had  an  odor  too  strong  for  the  Rabbi's  endurance. 
Involuntarily  he  thrust  Eliezer's  head  from  him  and 
the  latter  again  burst  into  passionate  tears. 

"Son,"  exclaimed  Rabbi  Yochanan  with  a  laugh, 
"if  thy  learning  rises  to  heaven  as  forcibly  as  thy 
breath  reaches  my  nostrils  thou  wilt  be  great  among 
the  greatest  doctors  of  the  law.  Whose  child  art 
thou?" 

'The  son  of  Hyrkanos,"  said  Eliezer  this  time. 

"Verily,  thou  art  sprung  from  a  famous  house  and 
thou  didst  not  tell  me  so.  This  very  day  thou  must 
eat  in  my  house,"  exclaimed  Ben  Zakkai. 

"I  have  already  eaten  at  the  house  of  my  host," 
said  the  haughty  scholar,  who  felt  insulted  and 
scarcely  cared  to  accept  the  proffered  hospitality. 

"Where  dost  thou  stay?  "  asked  the  master,  who 
doubted  the  statement  after  his  experience. 

"I  live  with  Rabbi  Yosay  the  priest,  and  with 
Rabbi  Josua  ben  Hananiah." 


IOO      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Ben  Zakkai  sent  to  inquire  whether  Eliezer  had 
dined  that  day.  He  learned  he  had  eaten  nothing 
for  eight  days.  Ben  Zakkai  then  insisted  upon 
Eliezer's  dining  with  him,  and  thenceforth  his  posi- 
tion as  one  of  the  disciples  was  fixed  in  the  school. 

His  brothers  were  glad  that  Eliezer  had  incurred 
his  father's  displeasure  by  leaving  home.  They 
disliked  him  because  the  father  showed  him  pref- 
erence, and  as  they  beheld  the  rage  of  Hyrkanos 
they  heaped  abuse  upon  Eliezer,  and  urged  their 
father  to  go  to  Jerusalem  and  publicly  disinherit  the 
disobedient  son.  The  old  man,  who  knew  not  the 
hearts  of  his  sons,  vowed  that  he  would  disinherit 
Eliezer.  But  as  day  followed  day,  and  month 
month,  his  heart  was  sad,  and  he  stayed  at  home ; 
he  could  not  find  it  in  his  heart  to  cut  off  his  beloved 
son  Eliezer.  Thus  years  passed  by,  in  toil  and  in 
bitterness;  for  the  eager  student  seemed  to  have 
forgotten  his  kindred  altogether. 

One  day  Hyrkanos  heard  that  Eliezer  was  a  stu- 
dent at  Ben  Zakkai's  academy.  The  intelligence 
affected  him  like  a  stroke  of  lightning.  The  old 
anger  which  had  been  dormant  awoke. 

"A  student!"  he  said.  "A  student  of  the  law, 
which  saith,  '  Honor  thy  father' !  A  disobedient  son 
is  he  and  naught  else." 

Forthwith  he  journeyed  to  Jerusalem.  It  hap- 
pened that  Ben  Zakkai  gave  a  feast  to  which  all  the 
great  men  in  Jerusalem  were  bidden.  Hyrkanos, 
whose  family  was  one  of  the  noblest  in  Israel,  went 
to  Ben  Zakkai's  house.  There  he  met  the  foremost 
nobles  of  Palestine,  Ben  Sisith  Hacknass  and  Nak- 


RABBI   ELIEZER   BEN   HYRKANOS  IOI 

dimon  ben  Gorion,  who  could  have  given  to  every 
inhabitant  of  Jerusalem  three  hundred  measures  of 
flour  and  still  have  retained  enough  to  feed  the  entire 
country  for  ten  years,"  and  Calba  Sebuah,  the  owner 
of  immense  gold-mines.7 

It  was  not  easy  to  get  into  the  hall.  Hundreds 
had  been  bidden,  and  others  had  come  without  that 
formality,  with  all  who  belonged  to  the  academy 
besides,  and  innumerable  attendants. 

Hyrkanos  at  length  made  his  way  into  the  great 
hall  and  asked  for  his  son  Eliezer. 

"Which  Eliezer  seekest  thou?"  some  students 
asked. 

"Which  Eliezer!"  cried  the  old  noble.  "I  seek 
the  son  of  Hyrkanos,  that  disobedient " 

He  stopped;  for  at  that  moment  the  students 
made  way  for  a  distinguished-looking  man.  Even 
the  angry  Hyrkanos  was  awed  at  the  majesty  which 
shone  from  his  face. 

"Who  is  he? "  Hyrkanos  asked  in  a  whisper. 

"That  is  the  great  disciple,  Rabbi  Eliezer  ben 
Hyrkanos,"  they  answered. 

A  mist  rose  before  Hyrkanos's  eyes;  he  could 
hardly  believe  his  senses. 

"Who  did  you  say  this  man  is?"  he  asked  again. 

' '  Dost  thou  not  know  him  ? ' '  they  cried,  ' '  of  whom 
't  is  said  that  if  all  the  laws  and  ordinances  were 
lost  he  could  write  them  from  memory ;  he  of  whom 
the  master  hath  said  that  his  mind  is  like  a  cemented 
cistern  which  lets  no  drop  of  water  filter  away,  our 
great  Rabbi  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos?" 

A  revulsion  of  feeling  took  place  in  the  father's 


IC2       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

heart.  Anger  gave  way  to  pride  and  love ;  tears  fell 
from  his  eyes.  He  mastered  himself  and,  seeing  his 
son  take  his  seat  near  Ben  Zakkai,  he  sent  word  to 
the  latter,  saying: 

"  Hyrkanos,  the  father  of  Eliezer,  is  here,  unknown 
to  him." 

Ben  Zakkai  at  once  ordered  that  the  old  noble  be 
sealed  by  his  side.  He  looked  at  Eliezer  and  said 
to  him  : 

"Say  something." 

"I  am  like  a  cistern,  which  can  give  just  as  much 
water  as  was  put  into  it ;  even  so,  O  master,  can 
I  but  repeat  what  I  learned  from  thee,"  Eliezer 
replied. 

"Nay,  thou  art  a  living  spring,  which  giveth  water 
without  measure.  Thou  canst  discourse  more  law 
than  was  given  on  Mount  Sinai.  But  lest  my 
presence  be  a  hindrance  to  thy  discourse,  I  will 
leave  the  room,"  said  the  master,  and  went  out. 

Rabbi  Eliezer  began.  As  he  spoke  light  seemed 
to  shine  from  his  face  like  that  of  Moses.  All  the 
people  stood  in  rapt  attention  at  the  marvellous 
speech  which  came  from  the  mouth  of  Eliezer.  But 
Rabbi  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai  came  from  behind  and 
kissed  his  head  and  said : 

"Glory  be  to  thee,  Father  Abraham,  and  to  you, 
Fathers  Isaac  and  Jacob,  that  this  one  is  descended 
from  your  seed  !  " 

When  Hyrkanos  saw  what  the  master  did,  and 
heard  his  words,  he  cried : 

'  Verily,  glory  should  be  mine ;  for  he  is  descended 
from  me." 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN   HYRKANOS  IO3 

But  when  Eliezer  recognized  his  father,  he  feared. 

"Father,"  said  he,  "be  seated  elsewhere;  I  shall 
be  unable  to  continue." 

The  happy  father  did  not  want  him  to  continue. 

"My  son,  my  beloved  son,"  he  cried,  "come  to 
me. 

In  a  moment  Eliezer  was  by  his  father's  side,  beg- 
ging forgiveness. 

"Dear  son,"  said  Hyrkanos,  "I  came  to  disinherit 
thee;  but  now  I  bid  thee  come  home,  thou  shalt 
have  all." 

"I  seek  not  earthly  treasure,  father,"  said  Eliezer, 
"I  strive  for  spiritual  wealth,  and  here  indeed  have 
I  found  what  I  sought,  and  here  shall  I  remain."  ' 

He  continued  his  studies  in  Jerusalem.  He  was 
one  of  the  disciples  who  carried  their  master  through 
the  Death  Gate  into  the  Roman  camp,"  and  when 
Ben  Zakkai  founded  his  school  in  Yamnai,  Eliezer  as- 
sisted him  in  teaching  the  law.  After  the  master's 
death,  Eliezer  went  to  Lydda  in  Southern  Judea, 
and  there  opened  a  school.  Soon  his  auditors  be- 
came so  numerous  that  he  hired  a  ruined  circus,  and 
there  taught  the  multitude  the  Word  of  God  and 
the  sayings  of  the  great  men  in  Israel. 

It  is  -probable  that  the  veneration  accorded  him  by 
the  crowd  made  him  arrogant.  In  virtue  of  his  un- 
failing memory  he  claimed  the  obedience  of  the  San- 
hedrin  to  his  decisions. 

That  body,  however,  declined  to  accept  Ben 
Hyrkanos's  decisions  as  supreme  in  the  law.  The 
majority  of  the  day,  it  held,  had  that  supremacy, 
and  to  oppose  the  will  of  the  majority  was  treason. 


104       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Eliezer  opposed  it,  however,  in  the  full  assurance 
that  right  was  on  his  own  side.  He  was  specially 
severe  on  the  president,  Gamaliel,  though  the  latter 
was  married  to  his  sister.10 

Rabbi  Josua  was  the  champion  of  the  majority 
rule  against  Eliezer.  He  was  presiding  Judge  under 
Gamaliel.  A  question  was  submitted  to  Eliezer's 
decision  which  had  already  been  ruled  on  in  the 
Sanhedrin.  Eliezer  laid  down  the  law  in  a  directly 
contrary  sense.  He  was  cited  before  the  tribunal  as 
a  teacher  of  false  laws.  There  he  maintained  his 
former  decision  and  claimed  that  tradition  was  the 
infallible  tribunal  at  which  the  law  could  be  prop- 
erly interpreted. 

The  trial  is  told  in  the  Talmud  in  figurative  lan- 
guage, which,  however,  gives  the  substantial  facts 
clearly  enough.  On  that  day,  it  says,"  Rabbi  Elie- 
zer answered  every  question,  but  the  council  would 
not  accept  his  answers  as  the  true  meaning  of  the  law. 

"If  the  law  be  as  I  say,  let  that  fruit  tree  bear 
witness,"  said  Rabbi  Eliezer. 

Whereupon  the  tree  near  the  school  was  torn  from 
its  place  and  cast  away  a  hundred  yards. 

"The  testimony  of  the  fruit  tree  is  not  enough," 
the  Rabbis  replied. 

"If  the  law  be  as  I  say,  yonder  brook  shall  bear 
witness,"  said  Rabbi  Eliezer. 

And  lo,  the  water  in  the  brook  flowed  backwards. 

"The  testimony  of  the  brook  is  insufficient,"  they 
said. 

"If  the  law  be  as  I  say,  the  walls  of  this  house 
shall  bear  witness,"  Rabbi  Eliezer  cried. 


RABBI    ELIEZER    BEN    HYRKANOS  105 

Thereupon  the  walls  bent  inward  as  if  to  fall. 
But  Rabbi  Josua  called  to  them,  saying: 

"When  sages  dispute  about  the  law,  how  dare 
you  interfere?  " 

And  the  walls  did  not  fall,  because  of  the  presence 
of  Rabbi  Josua,  neither  did  they  straighten,  be- 
cause of  the  presence  of  Rabbi  Eliezer,  and  they  are 
yet  standing  so. 

And  again  the  voice  of  Rabbi  Eliezer  was  heard : 

"If  the  law  be  as  I  say,  let  the  host  of  heaven 
bear  witness." 

Whereupon  a  voice  from  heaven  spoke : 

"What  would  you  with  Rabbi  Eliezer,  since  the 
law  is  ever  as  he  sayeth? " 

At  this  Rabbi  Josua  arose  and  said : 

"We  heed  not  the  celestial  voice  in  matters  of  the 
law;  the  law  is  not  in  heaven." 

This  Rabbi  Jeremiah  explains  to  mean  that  though 
God  had  given  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai,  he  had  also 
given  to  man  to  interpret  the  law,  and  in  the  law 
it  is  written  that  the  majority  shall  decide. 

A  knowledge  of  the  affairs,  both  religious  and 
political,  of  that  day  is  required,  as  well  as  a  clear 
comprehension  of  the  spirit  of  the  Talmud,  to  under- 
stand the  peculiar  form  of  expression  employed  by 
the  Rabbis.  Only  then  can  the  full  gravity  of  that 
famous  trial  be  appreciated.  Then  the  "testimony" 
is  both  material  and  relevant,  and  because  of  the 
historical  truth  underlying  it  we  recognize  in  that 
trial  a  critical  moment  in  the  history  of  the  Jewish 
religion.  I  venture  to  say  that  that  trial  has  had  its 
effect   upon  Judaism  and  the   Jews  during  all  the 


106       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

centuries  that  have  passed  since  that  memorable 
day ;  that  it  has  settled  many  vexed  questions,  and 
has  made  clear  the  way  pursued  by  the  leaders  in 
Israel  for  all  time.  This  hyperbolical  account  of  the 
famous  trial  is  not  a  mere  fancy  of  the  Rabbis  inter- 
larded with  superstitions,  as  has  been  claimed  by 
some  writers  on  talmudical  subjects.  There  is  real 
pathos  in  Rabbi  Eliezer's  plea,  and  there  is  force  in 
the  exceptions  taken  by  these  Rabbis  of  the  majority. 
Eliezer  pleads  for  tradition, — strict  adherence  to  the 
law  as  transmitted  from  master  to  master.  He 
held  that  no  man  nor  body  of  men  had  the  right 
to  change  aught  in  the  body  of  the  law  under  any 
conditions.  The  other  Rabbis  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
particularly  Josua,  opposed  this  idea,  and  held, 
with  Ben  Zakkai  and  Hillel,  that  the  end  of  the  law 
is  the  welfare  of  humanity,  and  that  all  in  it  is  sub- 
ordinate to  this  principle;  that  there  is  a  wide  differ- 
ence between  religion  itself  and  the  customs  which 
in  time  gather  around  it,  customs  which  die  or  be- 
come obsolete  when  the  necessity  or  the  expediency 
for  their  observance  ceases. 

Eliezer  failed  to  understand  his  master.  Maybe 
Ben  Zakkai  knew  that  Eliezer  did  not  understand 
him,  that  he  did  not  penetrate  his  policy  and  the 
motives  which  prompted  his  utterances;  maybe  the 
master  knew  that  Eliezer  was  but  a  receptacle  of 
learning,  without  discrimination,  and  Ben  Zakkai, 
therefore,  ironically  called  Eliezer  <4a  cemented  cis- 
tern which  lets  no  drop  of  water  filter  away."  Eli- 
ezer's was  not  a  pliant  mind.  He  knew  all  the  lore 
and  law  of  his  people,  and  his  obedience  to  the  law 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN   HYRKANOS  107 

equalled  his  knowledge;  to  make  the  law  subser- 
vient to  circumstances  was  repugnant  to  his  nature. 
The  religious  conditions  of  that  day  strengthened 
his  preconceived  ideas.  Christianity  with  its  ex- 
crescence, gnosticism,  had  sprung  into  existence  on 
precisely  the  principles  advocated  by  Eliezer's  oppo- 
nents, namely,  that  altered  conditions  made  altered 
laws.  Eliezer's  quarrel  with  the  Sanhedrists  recalls 
Hillel's  dispute  with  the  Bethyrahs."  Did  Eliezer 
entertain  aspirations  for  the  presidency?  Did  he 
hope  that  the  Sanhedrin,  seeing  that  he  was  the 
only  one  who  knew  every  tradition,  would  give  him 
Gamaliel's  place?  It  is  hardly  possible  that  he  did 
not  know  the  character  of  Hillel's  successors,  who 
would  have  given  up  anything  rather  than  the  presi- 
dency. Though  this  feature  of  the  controversy  may 
have  interest  from  a  local  political  point  the  chief 
interest  and  value  must  be  sought  in  the  religious 
considerations  that  prompted  Eliezer's  stand  against 
the  other  Rabbis.  His  reference  to  the  bread-fruit 
tree  points  to  Christianity,  which,  though  it  had  its 
origin  in  tradition,  refused  to  abide  by  it.13 

The  Sanhedric  Rabbis  have  no  regard  for  Elie- 
zer's argument.  The  reference  to  Christianity 
they  think  a  point  ill  taken.  There  was  nothing  in 
Christianity;  its  roots  were  too  shallow  in  the 
national  and  religious  soil;  it  could  be  uprooted  and 
cast  away  a  hundred,  nay,  four  hundred,  yards. 

"Hold  you  so  lightly,"  cried  Eliezer,  "the  tra- 
ditions of  our  masters?  Would  you  arrogate  unto 
yourselves  authority  to  add  to  or  to  abridge  the  law? 
I  tell  you,  there  is  no  authority  that  at  any  time 


IOS       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

could  lawfully  do  this.  We  must  abide  by  tradition, 
which  runneth  like  a  murmuring  brook  through  the 
meadows  of  Hebraic  law  and  lore.  Our  masters 
taught  and  builded  the  spiritual  kingdom  on  tra- 
dition. I  have  received  it  from  Ben  Zakkai,  and  he 
received  it  from  Hillel,  and  he  from  Shemaiah  and 
Abtalion,  and  they  received  it  from  the  Great  Synod, 
and  they  again  from  the  prophets,  and  so  on,  up  to 
Moses,  the  lawgiver  himself,  who  received  the  oral 
law  from  God  on  Sinai.14  By  slighting  tradition, 
you  sever  the  present  from  the  past,  you  cause  the 
waters  of  the  brook  to  recede  and  flow  backwards. 
Taken  from  its  glorious  tradition  Judaism  cannot 
survive." 

At  this  plea  many  of  the  Sanhedrists  are  affected. 
They  become  thoughtful,  retrospective.  In  sooth, 
"the  brook  flows  backwards."  They  contemplate 
this  grand  source  of  Judaism,  they  follow  the  turns 
and  windings  of  the  brook,  they  hear  its  murmuring, 
they  see  the  checkered  scenes,  they  behold  the  great 
vistas  strewn  with  the  dead,  the  martyred  men  and 
women  of  their  race,  who  gave  up  life  for  their 
glorious  heritage ;  they  behold  Egypt,  Syria,  Baby- 
lon;  they  see  Moses,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Cyrus;  they 
see  gloom  and  glory,  thrones  and  tears,  joy  and 
sorrow,  sanctity  and  defilement,  Temple  and  ruins ; 
they  see  all  that  as  they  mentally  travel  along  the 
edge  of  the  brook;  they  behold  and  reflect,  and 
their  hearts  turn  to  Eliezer. 

But  there  are  in  that  body  of  men  some  whose  re- 
flections have  brought  them  to  far  different  conclu- 
sions.    What  they  have  seen  convinces  them  that 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN    HYRKANOS  IO9 

the  law  was  always  suited  to  prevalent  conditions. 
It  is  true,  the  surroundings  of  the  brook  may  be 
grander  near  its  source;  there  are  dells  and  glens 
and  fair  fields,  but  the  brook  itself  is  narrow  at  its 
starting-point.  Thence  removed  by  distance,  the 
brook  grows  shallow  and  wide.  Barren  fields,  ruined 
cities,  desolate  homes,  and  blighted  hopes  line  its 
path.  An  oppressor  has  forced  the  Jew  to  worship 
the  ever-living  God  of  Israel  secretly ;  the  Sanhedrin 
must  devise  means  so  to  administer  the  law  as  to 
offend  neither  God  nor  caesar.  Since  there  is  no 
higher  human  authority,  a  majority  of  its  own  body 
must  decide  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong,  and 
from  its  decision  there  shall  be  no  appeal.  Innova- 
tions? yea,  even  innovations  and  total  abrogation  of 
certain  laws  shall  be  undertaken,  if  such  a  procedure 
be  deemed  necessary. 

Eliezer  saw  countless  dangers  in  innovations.  He 
whose  rigorous  adherence  to  religious  discipline  had 
prompted  him  to  apply  even  the  strict  measures  of 
the  Shammaiites,  so  that  he  was  thought  to  be  one 
of  them,'6  could  see  no  reason  for  changing  aught  in 
the  religious  principles  simply  because  the  times  re- 
quired it.  To  him  it  seemed  an  undermining  of 
ancient  authority,  aye,  even  of  the  very  school  that 
opposed  him.  They  were  shaking  an  established 
system,  thereby  giving  tacit  licence  to  future  scholars 
for  vandalism.  He  could  not  believe  that  his 
brother-in-law,  the  president  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
could  so  far  forget  what  he  owed  to  Ben  Zakkai  as 
to  oppose  his  decisions  for  which  Eliezer  now 
pleaded.     He  could  scarcely  believe  that  Akibah, 


IIO      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

his  favorite  disciple,  whose  soul  was  aflame  with  the 
idea  of  restoring  the  independence  of  the  common- 
wealth, could  oppose  him.  How  could  the  proud 
Gamaliel,  who  boasted  Davidic  descent,  attack  the 
foundation  upon  which  rested  the  glory  of  his  pa- 
triarchate? Nothing  would  suit  Rome  better  than 
a  weakening  in  traditional  belief.  You  think  of 
policy  against  Rome,  said  Eliezer,  while  she  thinks 
only  of  your  destruction.  Your  strength  can  come 
only  by  an  unswerving  adherence  to  the  law. 
With  it  there  is  power,  without  it  weakness ;  with  it 
realization  of  thy  hope,  Akibah,  and  thy  ambition, 
House  of  David :  without  it  there  is  blight,  eternal 
bondage,  and  ignominy.  And  you  two,  Gamaliel 
and  Akibah,  you  who  are  the  walls  of  the  school, 
will  you  not  testify  to  the  truth  of  my  words,  give 
evidence  as  to  the  justice  of  my  cause? 

And  the  "walls"  yielded,  and  bent  forward. 
How  could  they  withstand  that  plea?  How  could 
they  sit  silent,  when  he  had  laid  bare  their  inner- 
most thoughts?  How  remain  calm  in  the  face  of 
those  facts?  How  could  they  leave  the  great  master 
to  shame  and  sorrow?  Akibah  in  particular  was 
touched ;  he  knew  what  Eliezer  said  was  the  truth. 
He  recognized  the  force  of  his  master's  words;  he 
felt  their  prophetic  import,  and  who  knows  but 
that  at  that  moment  his  mind  conceived  the  plan  of 
the  revolution,  which  later  cost  Rome  more  blood 
and  gold  than  the  campaign  of  Titus?  It  was  he 
who  first  yielded  to  his  master's  plea.  Gamaliel, 
the  president,  too,  was  moved.  It  was  a  moment 
pregnant  with  danger  of   division  and  disruption. 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN   HYRKANOS  III 

The  pleader  was  not  only  the  president's  brother- 
in-law,  but  his  superior  in  learning,  the  disciple  and 
friend  of  Ben  Zakkai.  He  wavered.  But  his  throat 
was  dry,  his  tongue  cleaved  to  his  palate.  He  could 
not  utter  a  sound.  The  feeling  of  the  Sanhedrin 
was  intense,  the  silence  oppressive.  It  needed  but 
a  word  to  give  the  assembly  a  powerful  momentum 
in  favor  of  Eliezer,  to  acknowledge  him  their  master, 
perhaps  their  president.  But  at  that  moment  the 
fate  of  the  Sanhedrin  and  of  Eliezer  was  decided  by 
his  former  companion  and  colleague,  the  intrepid 
Rabbi  Josua.  He  saw  the  weakness  of  Gamaliel; 
he  knew  the  bent  of  Akibah's  mind.  In  a  measure 
he  sympathized  with  them.  But  he  knew  also  that 
it  was  impossible  to  accept  inflexible  tradition  or  the 
maxims  of  Eliezer.  He  saw  that  it  would  disrupt 
the  Sanhedrin ;  that  it  would  lose  its  power  of  inde- 
pendent action ;  that  it  would  remain  servile  to  the 
will  of  one  man — a  great  man,  surely — but  one  man 
only.  And  this  last  Sanhedrin,  the  faint  reflection 
of  that  older  one  which  had  given  character  and 
grandeur  to  Judaism,  should  bequeath  to  coming 
generations  the  great  principle  of  popular  rule  by 
representative  power,  the  direction  of  which  should 
forever  be  in  the  hands  of  the  majority.  He  felt 
keenly  when  he  saw  the  faltering  "walls,"  Gamaliel 
and  Akibah,  and  it  is  his  scathing  sarcasm  which 
dooms  them  to  silence  for  the  time  being.  Nothing 
hurt  Gamaliel  like  being  told  that  he  did  not  belong 
to  the  learned,  and  had  no  sympathy  with  them.'9 
The  pliant  Akibah  felt  less  hurt  at  insults,  but  he 
heard  them  often  enough."     Seeing  the  proceedings 


112       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

in  this  light,  one  feels  keenly  the  force  of  Josua's 
words: 

"When  sages  are  doing  battle  in  the  law,  why 
do  you  mix  in?  Why  show  your  weakness  so? "  he 
cries.  "This  is  not  a  question  of  individual  opinion, 
but  of  national  solidarity,  and  we  can  only  grow 
in  strength  when  we  sustain  the  majority."  The 
"walls,"  cowed  by  Josua's  remarks,  were  silent. 
They  loved  Eliezer  and  would  gladly  have  sided 
with  him,  but  they  feared  to  oppose  the  blacksmith, 
whose  arguments  were  made  with  an  intellectual 
force  like  that  with  which  he  wielded  the  sledge- 
hammer.18 

But  Eliezer  was  a  great  master ;  he  had  gone  into 
that  contest  to  establish  a  rule  for  himself  and  his 
school.  He  was  fighting  for  a  lofty  object.  He 
would  not  be  ruled  by  incompetents.  On  his  side 
was  the  matchless  authority  of  tradition,  the  heaven- 
given.  He  knew  it.  In  the  storehouse  of  his  mind 
there  were  treasures  heaped  upon  treasures,  and  the 
people  knew  that  he  spoke  by  authority.  They 
flocked  to  hear  his  discourses;  they  hung  upon  his 
words ;  they  believed  him ;  they  preferred  his  word, 
sanctified  by  the  magic  phrase,  "so  have  I  heard  it," 
to  the  decisions  of  the  Sanhedrim  He  appealed 
now  to  those  who  were  bent  upon  his  ruin. 

"The  voice  of  the  people  is  as  the  voice  of 
heaven,"  he  cried;  "the  people  know  that  I  was 
ordained  by  the  great  master,  Ben  Zakkai ;  let  the 
people  decide  whether  my  authority  shall  stand  or 

»  * 

no. 

This  appeal  brought   Josua  upon  his  feet.     His 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN    HYRKANOS  113 

keen  intellect  saw  the  seriousness  of  the  situation. 
Eliezer's  words  were  something  more  than  a  plea, — 
they  threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
None  knew  as  well  as  he  what  power  Rabbi  Eliezer's 
word  had  with  the  masses.  He  was  of  the  gallant 
band  that  had  stood  around  their  master,  Ben 
Zakkai,  whom  the  multitude  adored,  and  of  its 
survivors  none  enjoyed  the  people's  confidence  as 
Eliezer.  Heroic  measures  were  needed  to  curb 
Eliezer's  power. 

"The  people  are  guided  by  the  decisions  of  this 
Sanhedrin,"  cried  Josua;  "to  it  has  been  given 
the  right  of  judgment.  The  law  does  not  abide  in 
heaven,  it  has  been  given  to  man  on  Sinai.  There 
it  was  ordained  that  the  majority  should  rule,19  and 
if  a  voice  from  heaven  spake  otherwise  we  should 
not  heed  it.  I  repeat,  the  majority  rules,  and  he  is 
a  traitor  who  speaks  to  the  contrary — excommunica- 
tion shall  fall  upon  him." 

The  word  was  spoken.  Every  man  in  the  room 
trembled.  Gamaliel  was  silent.  As  president  of 
the  Sanhedrin  he  had  to  act,  and  rather  than  jeop- 
ardize his  own  position  he  sacrificed  his  brother-in- 
law. 

Eliezer  hated  him  unto  death,  and  though  Gamaliel 
later  excused  himself,  on  the  plea  of  preventing  a 
quarrel  in  Israel,"  Eliezer  never  forgave  him.  He 
was  less  wroth  with  Rabbi  Akibah,  for  whom  he  had 
small  respect,  and  whom  he  considered  "one  of  the 
contemptible  people  "  "  ;  but  Gamaliel's  vacillation 
filled  him  with  bitterness.  He  was  heedless  of  Rabbi 
Josua's   warning.       He    defied    the    Sanhedrin    and 


114       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

left  it,  still  maintaining  his  right  against  their  decis- 
ions. His  punishment  was  swift  and  severe.  He 
was  excommunicated.  His  decisions  were  annulled, 
and  the  objects  he  had  declared  clean  were  taken 
to  the  public  square  and  burned." 

To  conciliate  Rabbi  Josua  and  the  Sanhedrin, 
and  to  save  himself  a  severe  discipline,  Akibah  vol- 
unteered his  services  as  messenger  to  bear  the  evil 
tidings  to  Eliezer. 

"If  an  improper  person  were  to  take  the  mes- 
sage," said  the  diplomatic  Rabbi  Akibah,  "he  would 
destroy  the  world."  " 

Thereupon  he  put  on  a  black  mantle,  covered  his 
head  with  a  black  cloth,  and  sat  down  upon  the 
ground,  four  yards'  distance  from  Eliezer' s  house. 

When  Eliezer  saw  him  dressed  in  black,  he  asked : 

"Why  art  thou  dressed  in  black,  and  why  sittest 
thou  at  a  distance?  " 

"It  would  seem,  O  Rabbi,  that  thy  colleagues 
are  separating  themselves  from  thee,"  Akibah  said 

gently. 

Eliezer  understood.  He  tore  his  garments,  took 
off  his  sandals,  and  sat  himself  on  the  ground.  His 
tears  fell  fast ;  he  did  not  think  they  would  resort  to 
such  a  measure. 

When  it  was  known  that  Rabbi  Eliezer  had  been 
excommunicated  by  the  Sanhedrin,  sorrow  showed 
itself  on  all  sides.  Even  women  discussed  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  great  Rabbi  and  neglected  their 
housework;  or,  as  the  Talmud  puts  it,  "the  dough 
spoiled  in  their  hands."  " 

Sad  were  the  days  of  his  life  then.      Excluded 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN    HVRKANOS  115 

from  all  intercourse  even  with  his  disciples,  gloomy 
thoughts  darkened  his  mind ;  what  was  his  great 
learning,  his  life,  good  for  now?  He  thought  of 
ending  his  misery  by  self-destruction.  But  in  those 
dark  moments  light  came  to  him  from  the  past. 
His  soul  gained  strength  from  the  reflection  of  the 
life  and  hardships  of  his  master,  Ben  Zakkai,  who  in 
ruin  and  despair  held  to  the  Word  of  God  as  the 
only  means  of  salvation.  And  then  the  soul  of 
Rabbi  Eliezer  grew  strong  again  ;  his  faith  returned. 
Suicide,  he  saw,  was  the  coward's  means  of  shirk- 
ing supreme  effort  and  responsibility.  And  in  this 
spirit  he  wrote  a  decision  against  suicide,  which  (re- 
ferring to  Genesis  ix.,  5),  he  says,  is  as  criminal  as 
murder."  His  faith  in  God's  mercy  became  as  a 
rock.  A  great  joy  entered  his  heart.  He  felt 
kindly  towards  all  Israel,  even  to  those  who  had 
wrought  his  ruin.  Love  of  his  fellow-man  and  faith 
in  God  were  the  two  lights  which  illumined  his  soul. 
'The  honor  of  thy  fellow-man  shall  be  dear  to  thee 
as  thine  own,"  he  says.38  "He,  who,  having  bread 
in  his  basket,  asketh,  What  shall  I  eat  to-morrow? 
belongeth  to  those  who  have  little  faith  in  God's 
providence,"  is  another  maxim  of  his.  This  senti- 
ment, though  thoroughly  Jewish,  even  rabbinical, 
was  in  all  probability  learned  by  him  from  the 
apostles,  with  some  of  whom  he  was  in  fraternal 
intercourse  after  his  excommunication.2' 

The  fact  that  Rabbi  Eliezer  was  excommunicated 
had  no  effect  upon  the  people  of  Lydda.  The 
harsh  decree  of  the  Sanhedrin  against  their  beloved 
Rabbi  incensed  them  to  such  a  degree  that  many 


Il6      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

refused  to  abide  by  the  Sanhedric  decisions.  A 
split  in  the  ranks  of  the  remnant  of  Israel  seemed 
imminent.  Eliezer  saw  that  such  an  unfortunate 
movement  would  not  only  cause  the  law  of  God  to 
suffer,  but  that  Rome,  finding  a  pretext  for  inter- 
ference, would  stamp  out  the  last  vestige  of  Jewish 
life  on  Palestinian  soil.  Believing  that  the  people 
needed  an  authority  for  their  guidance,  and  that, 
despite  its  faults,  the  Sanhedrin  was  the  only  au- 
thority by  whose  mandates  the  people  could  live  in 
peace,  Rabbi  Eliezer  gave  up  his  school  in  Lydda 
and  moved  to  Caesarea.  There  he  was  in  close  inter- 
course with  James,  the  disciple  of  Jesus,58  and  others 
who  confessed  Him  of  Nazareth  as  the  promised 
Messiah.  The  Christian  body  stood  just  then  in 
very  bad  repute  with  Rome.  Christians  were  put 
to  death  when  arrested,  and  suspicion  of  one's  being  a 
Christian  was  sufficient  to  cause  his  arrest.  Eliezer 
was  a  man  of  distinction,  whose  associates  were 
easily  noted.  Rome  watched  the  movements  and 
doings  of  the  great  men  among  the  Hebrews.  Per- 
haps, too,  some  Jews  themselves,  disliking  Eliezer's 
relationship  with  the  Christians,  informed  the  Ro- 
man authorities.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Rabbi  Eliezer 
was  arrested  and  charged  with  being  a  Christian. 

There  was  no  evidence  to  prove  the  charge,  but 
the  Roman  judges  had  a  simple  way  of  finding  the 
adherents  of  that  "rebel,"  over  whose  crucified  form 
they  had  mockingly  written  the  word  "INRI,"  the 
initials  of  the  words,  "Iesus  Nazarae,  Rex  Iudae- 
orum"  (Jesus  of  Nazareth,  King  of  the  Jews).  The 
adherents  of  that  man  recognized  no  judge  other 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN   HYRKANOS  WJ 

than  Him;  they  took  punishment  and  death  with 
the  same  meekness  and  resignation  as  He  whom 
they  adored,  rejoicing  at  the  privilege  of  being 
crucified  as  was  their  Messiah. 

It  was  different  with  the  Jews  who,  after  their 
conquest  by  Rome,  accepted,  outwardly  at  least,  the 
Roman  sovereignty.  The  Roman  judges  knew  that 
an  orthodox  Jew  would  bend  before  a  Roman  rather 
than  be  thought  a  Christian. 

The  judge  before  whom  Eliezer  was  taken  knew 
of  the  Rabbi's  great  learning  and  scarcely  believed 
him  guilty  of  the  charge. 

"Can  it  be  that  thou,  a  scholar,  dost  adhere  to 
such  folly?  "  he  said. 

The  question  brought  a  train  of  thought  into  the 
mind  of  Eliezer.  The  judge  called  Christianity 
folly.  It  is  a  wonderful  folly  which  centres  in  hu- 
man love,  in  mercy,  in  kindness,  in  charity,  in  self- 
denial.  That  is  a  strange  folly  which  lifts  up  the 
fallen,  gives  hope  to  the  despairing,  and  promises 
salvation  to  all.  That  is  a  gracious  folly  which  bids 
forgive  a  brother  man  seven  times  seven  times, 
though  he  had  offended  as  often.  That  is  a  divine 
folly  which  seeks  its  glory  in  meekness,  its  reward  in 
bestowing  human  happiness,  its  hope  in  heaven. 

Where  was  Josua  in  the  hour  of  distress? 
Where  was  the  man  who,  though  a  scholastic  op- 
ponent, had  been  his  friend  for  so  many  years, — the 
friend  with  whom  he  had  shared  the  trials  of  the 
siege  in  Jerusalem  ;  with  whom  he  had  shared  suffer- 
ings and  sorrows,  and  the  dangers  in  rescuing  their 
beloved  master  from  the  besieged  city ;  with  whom 


Il8       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

he  had  travelled  over  land  and  sea  to  the  city  of 
Rome  to  plead  with  the  emperor  Trajan  to  revoke 
the  edicts  against  the  Jews?"  Eliezer  was  bitter 
against  Akibah  who,  after  the  excommunication, 
never  came  near  him.  It  hurt  him  to  think  that 
in  the  disregard  of  his  scholastic  authority,  against 
which  the  ban  was  directed,  he  had  forgotten  their 
friendly  relations  of  former  days. 

Here,  on  the  other  hand,  were  James  and  his 
fellow-believers  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  men  whose 
association  was  not  reminiscent  of  past  grandeur  and 
sorrow,  of  scholastic  fellowship  and  youthful  friend- 
ship ;  with  whom  he  had  no  learned  disputes  that 
left  in  his  soul  either  the  pleasure  of  the  conqueror 
or  the  regret  of  the  vanquished ;  nothing  but 
simple  faith,  nothing  but  brotherly  love,  nothing 
but  the  grace  born  of  meekness  and  piety.  And 
these  strange  men,  these  despised  Christians,  had 
come  to  him  like  elder  brothers ;  they  had  soothed 
his  turbulent  soul  and  healed  his  wounded  heart ; 
they  had  surrounded  him  with  love  and  devotion 
without  asking  on  his  part,  and  without  price  on 
theirs.  He  loved  them  for  that,  and  as  the  thought 
passed  through  his  mind  the  spirit  in  him  grew  keen 
for  self-sacrifice. 

His  eye  fell  upon  the  judge,  whose  face  was  mild 
and  whose  speech  had  a  certain  amount  of  reverence. 
This  reverence  was  due  to  the  learned  Jew,  who,  de- 
spite all  the  political  disabilities  imposed  on  him, 
had  to  be  humored.  The  Romans  knew  the  in- 
fluence the  learned  among  the  Jews  wielded  among 
the  masses.     If  Eliezer  confessed  himself  a  Christian, 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN    HYRKANOS  I  19 

he  would  be  outside  the  pale  of  that  regard  for 
Rome.  A  Christian  could  have  no  influence  with 
the  Jews,  be  his  learning  ever  so  great.  Eliezer  knew 
that  such  was  the  judgment  of  the  Romans.  The 
thought,  too,  came  to  him  of  a  possible  reconcilia- 
tion with  his  former  friends;  he  saw  himself  re- 
instated in  his  former  position,  again  shining  as  the 
light  in  Israel,  the  disciple  of  the  great  Ben  Zak- 
kai.  What  was  James  to  him?  What  were  all  the 
Christians? 

"I  trust  in  the  justice  of  the  judge,"  he  said. 

The  word  was  spoken.  By  it  Eliezer  denied  the 
Nazarene  and  proclaimed  his  disregard  for  the 
Christians.  It  was  so  understood  by  the  judge,  who 
said : 

"It  is  evident  from  thy  speech  that  thou  art  no 
Christian,  since  thou  wouldst  abide  by  my  judg- 
ment."30 

Eliezer  was  dismissed,  but  the  incident  had  its 
effect  upon  his  mind.  Having  thus  openly  re- 
nounced Christianity,  James  and  the  other  Chris- 
tian's shunned  him.  Soon  loneliness,  wounded 
pride,  and  remorse  were  the  only  reward  of  his 
vacillation.  His  body  soon  succumbed  to  his  mental 
suffering, — Rabbi  Eliezer  became  sick  unto  death. 

The  Rabbis  in  Yamnai,  hearing  of  his  illness,  sent 
Akibah  and  others  to  visit  him.  The  sight  of  his 
former  disciple  greatly  affected  the  sick  man.  After 
all,  thought  he,  old  friends  were  the  best,  they  could 
always  be  relied  on  at  the  last  moment.  Gently  he 
reproached  Akibah  for  his  neglect :  the  latter  as 
gently  told  Eliezer  that  the  main  reason  why  the 


120      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Rabbis  had  kept  away  was  because  of  the  report  of 
his  apostasy.  When  Eliezer  heard  this  he  was  quite 
overcome.  Then  after  all  they  had  not  been  his 
enemies,  but  friends  bewailing  his  error.  He  made 
an  open  confession  and  again  recanted  Christianity.31 
But  when  the  visiting  Rabbis  asked  his  opinion 
whether  Pcloni,  by  which  they  meant  Jesus,32  had  a 
share  in  the  bliss  of  Paradise,33  he  evaded  the  ques- 
tion ;  he  could  not  bring  himself  to  speak  ill  of  one 
whose  teachings  seemed  to  him  sublime;  and  to 
speak  well  of  Him  was,  in  the  present  state  of  re- 
cantation, equally  impossible.  Therefore  he  started 
a  discussion  about  Sanhedric  decisions,  and  soon  the 
combative  spirit  overpowered  all  other  sentiments, 
even  that  of  physical  pain.  He  was  again  the  aggres- 
sive Titan  who  once  defied  the  entire  Sanhedrin. 
He  seemed  to  grow  in  strength,  his  voice  gathered 
volume  and  power  as  he  hurled  his  sharp  sentences 
against  those  who  opposed  the  authority  of  what  he 
had  conceived  to  be  the  right  form  of  interpretation 
in  accordance  with  tradition.  He  put  the  entire 
force  of  his  fast-fading  life  into  his  assertions.  What 
the  others  had  declared  to  be  unclean  he  pronounced 
clean,  and  with  the  word  "clean"  on  his  lips  he  sank 
down  and  died. 

A  great  light  had  gone  out  in  Israel;  forgotten 
were  all  disputes  of  former  days;  forgotten  was  the 
bitterness  which  these  quarrels  had  engendered. 
Rabbi  Josua  bent  down  and  kissed  the  face  of  the 
dear  dead  friend  and  companion,  and  at  once  re- 
moved the  ban.  Then  the  Rabbis  carried  the  body 
to  Lydda,  Eliezer's  former  place  of  activity.     There 


RABBI    ELIEZER   BEN    HYRKANOS  121 

Rabbi  Akibah  delivered  a  touching  eulogy  over  the 
remains  of  his  master,  and  amidst  groans  and  lamen- 
tations, the  foremost  man  in  Israel  was  laid  to  his 
last  rest.34 

Rabbi  Josua,  more  than  any  other,  felt  that 
with  the  death  of  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos  much 
valuable  learning  was  lost;  that  his  mind  had  indeed 
been  as  a  "cemented  cistern  which  lets  no  drop  of 
water  filter  away."  Josua  felt  that  they  had 
buried  a  book  of  wisdom,36  and  though  the  death  of 
Eliezer  removed  a  dangerous  opponent  to  his  ac- 
tivity, Josua  yet  loved  the  man,  who  always 
fought  fair,  though  often  fierce  and  vicious  as  a  lion. 
And  when,  after  a  time,  some  Sanhedrists  sought  to 
repeal  certain  laws  and  decisions  enacted  by  Rabbi 
Eliezer,  Josua,  who  was  then  Acting  Patriarch,  cried  : 
"It  is  not  meet  to  fight  a  dead  lion."  ss 
Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  he  who  fought  Eliezer 
bitterest  when  alive  became  his  defender  and,  may- 
be, the  conserver  of  the  literary  works  which  bear 
Eliezer's  name.  Their  quarrels,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, were  not  for  self-aggrandizement,  but  for  the 
perpetuation  of  Judaism;  and  any  harshness  that 
sprang  out  of  them  was  directed  against  the  means 
rather  than  against  the  aim.  After  the  death  of 
Eliezer,  the  activity  of  the  schools  became  marked 
for  its  decided  national  aspect,  which  the  circum- 
spect Josua  could  not  check,  but  which  his  wonder- 
ful sagacity  could  conceal  and  protect  from  without. 


CHAPTER   VI 

RABBI  JOSUA  BEN  HANANIAH 

RABBI  JOSUA  BEN  HANANIAH,  the  third 
disciple  of  Ben  Zakkai,  differed  from  Eliezer 
as  day  from  night.  Eliezer's  obstinacy  brought 
him  under  the  judgment  of  the  Sanhedrin, — Josua's 
subtlety  made  him  its  master.  He  supported  the 
authority  of  the  majority  in  principle,  and  in  practice 
he  managed  the  majority.  Gamaliel,  the  president, 
was  but  a  figure-head  when  Josua  attended  the  ses- 
sions. The  shrewd  and  calm  Josua,  as  presiding 
judge  of  the  Sanhedric  court,  easily  manipulated 
matters  to  his  own  benefit,  and  appeared  as  the  in- 
jured  party,  to  whom  an  apology  was  due.1  His 
master  mind  commanded  respect  from  the  populace 
and  Sanhedrin  alike,  and  even  from  a  Roman  em- 
peror. Ben  Zakkai  characterized  him  in  a  pithy 
sentence:  "He  is  like  a  three-ply  cord,  which  doth 
not  break. ' '  a 

He  was  from  birth  intended  for  the  sacred  profes- 
sion.3 Being  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  he  early  became 
a  member  of  the  Temple  choir,  and  thence  a  pupil 
of  Ben  Zakkai.  Music  and  Hebrew  were  not  his 
only  studies.  He  applied  himself  to  Latin  and 
Greek,   to   mathematics,    geography,    physics,    and 

122 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  123 

astronomy.  In  the  latter  science  he  computed  the 
appearance  of  a  comet  for  the  year  89  A.c.4  His 
familiarity  with  Greek  was  extensive.  A  relative  of 
Hadrian,  Aquila,  who  translated  the  Pentateuch  into 
that  language,  submitted  his  work  for  criticism  to 
Josua  and  Eliezer.  Josua  expressed  himself  in 
terms  of  praise.6  This  diplomacy  served  the  Rabbi 
later  with  Hadrian.  Josua  was  in  temper  a  modern 
Bohemian,  careless  of  his  personal  appearance,  but 
of  sparkling  wit  and  biting  sarcasm.  Subtle  in  argu- 
ment, liberal  in  religion,  he  was  full  of  resources  for 
moulding  public  opinion.  In  his  day  there  was  none 
like  him  as  statesman,  orator,  or  diplomat.  His  life 
was  not  without  romance,  yet  affections  of  the  heart 
had  not  sufficient  power  to  influence  the  mental 
balance  of  Josua.  When  quite  young  he  fell  in  love 
with  the  daughter  of  a  priest.  The  engagement  was 
made  public  and  the  young  scholar  was  happy.  One 
day  he  met  with  an  accident  which  confined  him  to 
his  bed  for  some  time.  Meanwhile  the  father  found 
what  seemed  a  better  match,  and  broke  the  engage- 
ment with  Josua. 

The  lovers  met  once  more  and  the  girl  told  a  tear- 
ful tale  of  a  father's  tyranny  to  which  she  was  forced 
to  submit.  Josua  felt  much  hurt.  The  priest  was 
but  one  of  the  licensed  paupers,  of  whom  there  were 
thousands  in  Jerusalem,  and  whose  descent  from 
Aaron,  the  first  High  Priest,  was  largely  supported 
by  the  evidence  of  their  own  assertions,  while  Josua 
was  already  a  rising  scholar,  who  it  was  surmised 
would  later  play  a  great  part  in  the  commonwealth. 
Josua  was  conscious  of  his  own  worth,  and  when  his 


124       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

colleagues  sought  to  console  him,  he  remarked  with 
sarcasm : 

"I  suppose  an  alliance  with  me  was  not  honor 
enough  for  the  High  Priest  Aaron."  ' 

It  does  not  appear  that  Josua  ever  married.  He 
sought  diversion  in  study,  manual  labor  (he  became 
a  smith  and  a  needle-maker),  and  in  travel,  which 
broadened  his  views  and  later  on  made  him  a  mighty 
power  among  the  ever-discontented  Hebrews. 

As  a  student  he  won  the  highest  fame.  He  was 
made  president  of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  the  highest 
office  of  the  Sanhedrin  after  that  of  president. 
He  was  not  one  to  let  passion  interfere  with  political 
designs,  and,  his  policy  being  popular  power,  he  was 
ready  to  sacrifice  all  sentiment  to  that  aim.  It  was 
he  who  cut  off  Eliezer's  authority  in  the  Sanhedrin  ; 
because  in  his  course  he  foresaw  danger  to  the 
solidarity  of  that  institution ;  and  he  it  was  who  de- 
feated the  president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  when  that 
official  opposed  him  in  the  assembly.  Josua  disliked 
a  one-man  power.  His  spirit  was  democratic,  and 
he  suffered  no  law  to  pass  which  tended  to  increase 
the  religious  burden  of  the  people,  unless  the  law 
was  directed  to  prevent  immorality. 

"You  cannot  hinder  lewdness,  but  you  can  check 
it  by  care,"  was  his  sententious  remark.7 

In  the  matter  of  ceremonialism,  in  long  prayers, 
in  countless  observances  which  Gamaliel  tried  to 
add,  he  stood  for  the  people  and  against  the 
Rabbis. 

"Let  them  observe  the  laws  they  have,"  he  said; 
"don't  increase  them.     Busy  men  and  laborers  have 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  12$ 

no  time  for  minute  and  useless  observances.  If  you 
pour  water  into  a  cask  full  of  oil,  the  oil  is  bound  to 
flow  over  and  get  lost.  Make  no  law  which  the  con- 
gregation as  a  body  cannot  observe."  8 

Gamaliel,  the  president,  would  have  dealt  with 
Josua,  if  he  could,  as  the  latter  dealt  with  Eliezer. 
But  he  found  himself  against  a  majority  which  he 
could  not  move.  The  majority  was  with  the  in- 
trepid and  witty  debater.  Unable  to  conquer  Josua, 
he  sought  to  humiliate  him.  It  was  not  permissible 
to  advise  any  one  against  the  expressed  instruction 
of  the  president  unless  openly  debated  and  voted 
on.  In  other  words,  the  president's  command  or 
decision  in  any  question  was  operative  as  law  until 
the  Sanhedrin  had  voted  against  it.  In  simpler 
affairs  such  procedure  was  not  taken,  and  the  presi- 
dent's decision  not  only  had  all  the  force  of  a  law, 
but  became  immediately  operative.  Josua  disliked 
this  arbitrary  power  and  at  every  opportunity  worked 
against  it.  Gamaliel  knew  of  Josua's  opposition,  but 
was  unable  to  confront  him.  At  length  the  day 
came  ;  the  president  was  determined  to  silence  Josua 
for  good.  Gamaliel  had  decided  that  evening  prayers 
were  obligatory,  the  decision  being  based  on  biblical 
authority.  This  decision  created  much  hardship  for 
the  busy  men,  who  if  they  failed  in  that  devotion 
became  amenable  to  the  law.  Rabbi  Akibah,9  who 
thought  the  time  opportune  to  avenge  his  master 
Eliezer,  Gamaliel,  and  his  own  wrongs  upon  Josua, 
and  get  him  into  contempt  with  the  Sanhedrin, 
asked  him  if  he  thought  evening  prayers  oblig- 
atory. 


126      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"I  hold  evening  prayers  to  be  a  matter  of  indi- 
vidual conscience,"  said  Josua;  "if  a  man  feels  like 
praying  let  him  do  so." 

This  was  all  Akibah  wanted.  He  went  to  Gamaliel 
and  informed  him  that  Josua  was  speaking  against 
his  decision.  Gamaliel  saw  a  chance  to  punish 
Josua  if  the  latter  would  publicly  repeat  what  he 
had  said  privately.  Accordingly  he  instructed  his 
informant  to  ask  him  the  same  question  in  the 
Sanhedrin,  and  ordered  Josua  to  be  present.  When 
the  session  had  opened,  Akibah  asked  whether  eve- 
ning prayers  were  obligatory. 

"They  are,"  said  the  president.  "Does  any  one 
object  to  this  decision?"  he  continued,  looking  at 
Josua. 

The  latter  recognized  that  Gamaliel  had  planned 
a  deliberate  attack  on  him. 

"No  voice  is  raised  against  thy  decision,"  he  said. 

"I  am  told  that  thou  didst  declare  evening  prayer 
a  matter  of  individual  conscience.  Stand  up  ;  there 
is  a  witness  against  thee,"  the  president  said,  point- 
ing at  Akibah. 

"A  living  witness  is  here  to  testify  against  me," 
Josua  quietly  replied,  "and  I  acknowledge  that  I 
have  uttered  such  an  opinion." 

Gamaliel  was  not  satisfied  with  this  confession. 
Turning  from  Josua  with  a  contemptuous  shrug,  he 
began  his  discourse  for  the  day  without  bidding 
Josua  to  sit  down,  which  he  could  not  do  without 
the  president's  permission.  Josua  stood  without 
protest. 

The  Sanhedrin,  considering  Gamaliel's  action  an 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  127 

affront  to  the  president  of  the  court  as  severe  as 
undeserved,  rose  in  a  body  and  commanded  Gamaliel 
to  stop  his  discourse  and  step  down.  He  was  de- 
clared unfit  longer  to  occupy  his  exalted  office,  and 
a  wealthy  and  learned  young  man,  Elazar  ben 
Azariah,  was  thereupon  elected  in  Gamaliel's  place. 
Not  until  he  had  humbly  asked  Josua's  pardon, 
which  the  latter  readily  granted,  did  the  Sanhedrin 
reinstate  Gamaliel  in  the  presidential  chair. 

Thus  did  Rabbi  Josua's  diplomatic  silence  defeat 
a  man  who  thought  himself  in  the  height  of  his 
power;  whereas  if  Josua  had  lost  control  of  himself 
even  by  but  a  word,  he  might  have  been  subjected 
to  severe  discipline,  if  not  to  excommunication. 

Gamaliel  was  a  man  who  needed  but  a  hint  to  see 
the  error  of  his  ways.  He  felt  that  he  was  dealing 
not  with  an  individual,  but  with  a  power.  A  man 
who,  without  fortune,  could  make  the  council  of  the 
nation  subservient  to  his  will,  deserved  admiration. 
No  sooner  did  Gamaliel  recognize  this  than  anger 
fled  his  soul.  He  recognized  that  it  was  Josua  who 
really  had  put  supreme  power  in  the  hands  of  the 
majority.  But  for  his  subtle  intellect,  another,  per- 
haps the  stubborn  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos,  with  his 
Shammaittic  tendencies  to  inflexible  law,  might  have 
occupied  the  presidential  chair.  Gamaliel  one  day 
went  to  Josua's  house,  which  was  not  much  better 
than  a  hovel,  being  a  smith's  shop  and  living-room. 
When  the  wealthy  Gamaliel  saw  its  black  walls,  he 
could  not  suppress  a  shudder. 

"By  the  walls  one  would  know  that  thou  art  a 
smith,"  he  said. 


128       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Josua's  independence  was  dear  to  him,  and  though 
he  ate  his  bread  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow  he  never 
complained. 

"Woe  to  the  generation  whose  leader  thou  art :  " 
he  answered  bitterly.  'Thou  hast  no  conception 
how  hard  poor  scholars  have  to  work  to  earn  a 
living." 

"Pardon  me,  I  did  thee  an  injustice,"  said 
Gamaliel. 

Josua  was  silent. 

"Pardon  me  in  honor  of  my  father,"  pleaded 
Gamaliel. 

Thereupon  Josua  stretched  forth  his  hand,  which 
the  other  grasped  and  pressed  with  emotion.  The 
two  went  to  the  session  arm  in  arm,  and  the  people 
were  so  touched  at  the  sight,  that  they  elected 
Gamaliel  joint-president  with  Elazar  ben  Azariah.10 

Josua  travelled  extensively  through  Palestine,  and 
was  several  times  in  Rome  and  in  Alexandria.  His 
first  trip  to  Rome  was  in  company  with  Eliezer." 
The  manners  of  the  people  in  the  Eternal  City  made 
a  deep  impression  upon  him.  He  recognized  that 
his  people's  political  salvation  depended  upon  sub- 
mission, at  least  in  appearance,  to  Rome's  rule.  On 
his  return  he  warned  the  turbulent  Hebrews  not  to 
ask  too  much  of  Rome ;  she  had  given  them  some 
privileges, — let  them  be  contented.  The  common- 
wealth was  lost  before  because  the  people  had  been 
inconsiderate  and  hasty.  They  never  had  made 
preparations  for  war;  their  finances  were  misman- 
aged ;  they  sought  no  outside  alliances  as  the  Ro- 
mans did.     A  people  so  poorly  directed  could  not 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  129 

withstand  the  power  of  a  great  nation.  These  ideas 
he  embodied  in  his  discourses,  cloaked  in  parables 
or  in  supposed  experiences.  One  story  he  told 
thus: 

"In  my  life,  no  one  ever  put  me  down  but  a  wo- 
man, a  girl,  and  a  boy.  You  ask  how  I  was  put 
down  by  the  woman?  I  came  to  an  inn,  where  the 
landlady,  a  very  pious  woman,  gave  me  a  meal  of 
beans  and  bread.  I  ate  the  beans,  leaving  nothing 
in  the  dish.  The  second  day,  she  again  gave  me 
beans  and  bread,  and  again  I  ate  all  and  left  nothing 
in  the  dish.  On  the  third  day,  she  brought  me  the 
same  dish  again ;  but  as  she  had  put  too  much  salt 
into  the  beans  I  could  not  eat  them.  And  so  I  ate 
but  the  bread.     Whereupon  she  said  : 

"  'Rabbi,  why  dost  thou  not  eat  the  beans? ' 

"  'I  have  dined  once  already,'  said  I. 

"  'Then,'  said  she,  'why  didst  thou  eat  the  bread? 
Is  it  because  thou  didst  leave  nothing  in  the  dish 
yesterday  nor  the  day  before,  that  thou  wouldst 
leave  all  to-day?  Let  me  remind  thee  of  the  old 
saying,  that  a  man,  eating,  should  always  leave 
something  in  the  dish.' 

"Would  you  know  how  I  was  vanquished  by  a 
little  girl?  Once,  while  travelling,  my  way  led 
through  a  field.  I  had  not  gone  far  when  a  girl  met 
me. 

"  'Rabbi,'  said  the  girl,  'dost  know  that  thou  art 
trespassing  on  a  private  field? ' 

"  'I  am  walking  on  a  well-worn  path,'  I  replied. 

"  'Aye,  evil-doers  such  as  thou  have  worn  this 
path  in  our  fair  field,'  she  said. 


I30      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"And  wouldst  thou  know  how  I  was  worsted  by 
a  little  boy?  One  day,  near  a  city,  I  came  upon  a 
crossroad.     At  the  roadside  sat  a  boy. 

"  'Which  way  leadeth  to  the  city? '  I  asked  him. 

"  'This  one  here  is  short  and  long,  and  the  other 
is  long  and  short,'  he  said. 

' '  I  took  the  one  which  was  '  short  and  long, '  and 
soon  came  within  sight  of  the  city.  But,  alas !  I  found 
that  my  way  had  led  to  private  gardens  which  were 
surrounded  by  high  hedges  and  I  was  forced  to  return. 

"  'My  son,'  said  I,  to  the  boy,  'didst  thou  not 
tell  me  that  this  road  was  short? ' 

"  'I  did,'  said  he,  'but,  Rabbi,  I  told  thee  also 
that  it  was  long.' 

"I  kissed  the  head  of  that  boy  and  said,  'Hail 
unto  Israel !  It  is  a  sage  people  from  the  highest  to 
the  lowest.'  "  ia 

Valuable  as  was  his  judgment  in  religious  matters, 
it  was  even  greater  in  dealing  with  the  projects  of 
the  revolutionary  party.  His  spies  were  everywhere 
— he  knew  everything.  At  the  court  of  Domitian 
or  Nerva  in  Rome,  he  was  in  favor,  and  though 
these  emperors  taxed  the  Hebrews  mercilessly,  they 
granted  Josua  personally  many  favors,  among  them 
a  reduction  of  the  fiscus judceus,  or  the  "Jew  Tax." 
He  was  held  in  esteem  by  Domitian's  daughter, 
who  invited  him  to  her  table  despite  his  careless 
dress  and  ugly  visage. 

"Rabbi,"  said  she  one  day,  "how  is  it  that  so 
great  a  mind  as  thine  dwelleth  in  so  homely  a  body?" 

"Pray,  tell  me,  princess,  in  what  kind  of  vessels 
doth  thy  father  keep  his  best  wines?  " 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  131 

"In  wooden  casks,"  said  she. 

"The  best  wine  in  wooden  casks!'  Josua  ex- 
claimed; "I  thought  he  kept  them  in  golden  casks." 

"The  wine  would  spoil  in  golden  casks,"  said  the 
princess. 

"Behold,  princess,"  Josua  rejoined,  "as  old  wine 
is  better  kept  in  wooden  than  in  golden  casks,  even 
so  is  wisdom  often  given  to  the  homely,  who  are 
less  liable  to  spoil  it  by  earthly  vanity."  13 

He  was  on  equally  good  terms  with  emperor 
Trajan,  whom  he  induced  to  recall  the  cruel  Quietus 
from  Palestine,  to  forgive  the  Hebrews,  and  to  set 
free  the  two  revolutionary  leaders,  Pappus  and  Ju- 
lianus.  The  Hebrews  were  so  happy  at  this  edict 
that  they  proclaimed  an  annual  "Trajan  Day."  M 

Josua  also  gained  the  good  graces  of  Hadrian. 
He  was  then  vice-president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  almost 
a  prince,  and  the  foremost  intellect  of  his  time. 
He  saw  that  the  people  could  not  be  kept  down 
much  longer.  Neither  Trajan  nor  Hadrian  had 
kept  faith  with  the  Jews.  Hadrian  had  promised 
to  rebuild  the  Temple,  but  he  made  no  attempt  to 
keep  his  promise.  The  Hebrews  rose  in  arms  in 
the  Valley  of  Rimmon.  Josua  hastened  to  caution 
his  people.  The  times  were  not  ripe  for  revolution. 
Rome  was  on  guard,  her  legions  were  massed  around 
Palestine  like  birds  of  prey.  On  the  military  high- 
way he  met  his  trusted  agent,  Ben  Zoma,  but  the 
latter  did  not  salute  him.  Josua  asked  him  what 
was  the  impending  danger.  Ben  Zoma  told  him 
that  the  country  swarmed  with  Romans;  that 
Roman  eyes  were  then  watching  them.     He  bade 


132       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Josua  hasten  with  the  flight  of  an  eagle  to  warn  the 
people. 

The  Talmud  tells  this  in  the  form  of  a  parable. 

Rabbi  Josua  met  Ben  Zoma,  and  the  latter  did  not 
salute. 

"Whence  and  whither,  Ben  Zoma?"  asked  Rabbi 
Josua. 

"I  have  thought  of  the  history  of  creation  and  I 
have  found  that  it  is  not  the  width  of  a  hand  'tween 
the  upper  waters  and  the  lower  as  it  is  written 
(Genesis  i.,  2),  'And  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  hovered 
above  the  waters.'  (There  is  no  system,  nor  prepa- 
ration in  the  camp  of  Israel, — all  is  chaos,  while  the 
Romans  are  well  organized,  ready  to  strike.)  And 
as  is  written  (Deuteronomy  xxxii.,  1 1),  'As  the  eagle 
fluttereth  above  the  nest.' 

This  story  the  Talmud  further  states,  that  Ben 
Zoma's  remarks  refer  to  a  band  of  warriors  who 
pass  through  a  hollow  way :  on  one  side  is  fire, 
which,  if  it  touch,  will  burn  them,  and  on  the  other 
side  is  a  bank  of  snow,  which  will  stiffen  their  limbs. 
If  the  Hebrews  fight  the  Romans  now,  they  will 
meet  with  defeat,  because  the  Romans  are  like  a 
burning  fire;  but  in  view  of  their  sad  condition,  in- 
activity will  lead  to  stagnation.  To  give  no  clue  to 
any  Roman  who  might  seek  to  interpret  Ben  Zoma's 
words,  Rabbi  Josua  cried  out  to  his  followers: 

"Ben  Zoma  is  beside  himself;   he  hath   lost  his 

*  *    16 

reason. 

Whether  Ben  Zoma  was  killed  by  the  Romans, 
or,  fearing  an  uprising,  went  to  lead  a  hermit  life 
in  one  of  the  caves  in  the  mountains  is  not  known. 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    IIANANIAH  1 33 

The  Talmud  only  says  that  a  few  days  after  this 
message  to  Rabbi  Josua  "Ben  Zoma  was  called 
away  from  this  life."  16 

Josua  hastened  to  Rimmon  and  there  addressed 
the  assembled  Hebrews.  An  eloquent  speech  it  was, 
and  full  of  meaning  to  those  who  knew  the  orator. 
He  ended  with  a  parable: 

"A  lion  [Rome]  had  swallowed  a  bone  which 
stuck  in  his  throat ;  he  promised  great  reward  to 
any  one  who  would  extract  it.  A  Nile  stork  came 
and  with  his  long  beak  took  the  bone  from  the  lion's 
throat.  When  the  stork  asked  for  the  promised  re- 
ward, the  lion  said : 

'Go  hence  and  tell  the  people  that  thou  hast 
been  in  the  mouth  of  a  lion  and  hast  come  away 
unharmed.' 

"We  should  be  satisfied  to  have  escaped  from 
Roman  kindness  with  our  lives."  17 

The  news  that  Josua  had  prevented  an  uprising 
of  the  Hebrews  was  brought  to  Hadrian,  and  re- 
membering what  his  relative,  Aquila,  had  written 
about  the  Hebrew  sage,  he  showed  him  great  favor. 
But  Hadrian's  edicts  against  the  poor  Hebrews  con- 
tinued to  be  very  cruel.  The  Jews  dared  hope  for 
no  more  favor  from  him.  Instead  of  restoring  the 
Temple,  he  began  to  lay  ruthless  hands  on  their 
faith.  He  forbade  the  study  of  the  law  and  the 
practice  of  circumcision.  Sorrowfully  the  people 
came  to  Josua  and  begged  his  intercession  with  the 
tyrant,  who  was  then  in  the  city  of  Alexandria,  and 
Josua  went  to  see  Hadrian. 

He  was  received  with  great  consideration,  but  it 


134       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

was  long  before  he  could  bring  the  emperor  to  favor 
his  petition. 

Hadrian  wished  to  test  the  wisdom  of  the  Hebrew 
sage. 

"Thy  people  are  rebels  and  barbarians,"  said 
Hadrian;  "let  them  abandon  their  obsolete  laws  of 
Moses  and  obey  mine.  I  am  greater  than  Moses, 
since  I  can  enforce  obedience  and  he  can  not,  and 
by  the  testimony  of  your  own  Scriptures  it  is  shown 
that  'a  live  dog  is  better  than  a  dead  lion.' 

The  emperor's  logic  seemed  irrefragable;  he  was 
lord  of  life  and  death  of  the  people,  he  could  enforce 
obedience.  But  obedience  from  fear  of  violence  is 
one  thing  and  obedience  from  love  and  reverence  of 
the  law  is  another.  But  he  who  has  no  power  over 
the  minds  and  hearts  of  those  he  rules  may  not  hope 
to  receive  implicit  obedience  at  all  times  nor  in  all 
places. 

"Canst  thou  forbid  the  kindling  of  fire  for  three 
days,  O  mighty  emperor?"  said  Josua. 

"I  can,"  Hadrian  replied,  and  forthwith  he  com- 
manded that  for  three  days  no  fire  be  made  in  the 
city. 

But  that  very  afternoon  smoke  issued  from  one 
of  the  chimneys  of  Hadrian's  own  palace.  On  in- 
vestigation it  was  found  that  one  of  the  generals  had 
fallen  ill  and  ordered  a  fire. 

"Behold,"  said  Rabbi  Josua,  "thy  command  for 
three  days  has  been  disobeyed  here  even  now,  but 
the  command  of  Moses  not  to  kindle  a  fire  on  the 
Sabbath  is  obeyed  to  this  day,  thousands  of  years 
after  his  death." 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  1 35 

This  gave  Hadrian  food  for  thought.  The  He- 
brews must  have  some  high  qualities  to  obey  im- 
plicitly their  teacher's  laws  for  reverence  alone,  while 
Romans  had  to  be  held  to  the  obedience  of  the  law 
by  an  iron  hand.  A  man  who  could  win  the  love  of 
such  a  people  might  build  a  commonwealth  to  out- 
last the  ages. 

"Great  indeed  is  the  lamb  [Israel]  which  still  liveth 
though  surrounded  by  seventy  wolves,"  he  said, 
following  the  trend  of  his  thoughts. 

"  N ot  the  lamb  is  great,  but  God  who  protects  it, " 
said  Rabbi  Josua.19 

In  this  thoughtful  manner  the  Rabbi  at  length 
succeeded  in  having  the  edicts  annulled,  and  the 
Hebrews  breathed  easier  for  a  while. 

In  the  conversations  which  took  place  between 
the  learned  emperor  and  the  Jewish  sage  many 
references  were  made  to  the  existing  conditions  of 
the  Jewish  race.  Josua  endeavored  to  conciliate 
Hadrian's  opinions  towards  his  people  by  his  wit. 
Some  Jewish  bandits  had  taken  refuge  in  the  Par- 
thian dominions  and  thence  ravaged  the  Roman 
borders  with  impunity.  Hadrian  had  a  dislike  of 
war,  and  especially  of  any  repetition  of  Trajan's 
Asiatic  campaigns,  and  preferred  to  endure  the 
banditti  of  the  deserts  as  a  lesser  evil.  One  day  in 
company  with  Josua  he  said : 

"I  could  set  a  table  in  the  centre  of  the  world 
and  be  host  to  the  immortal  gods ;  aye,  even  to  thy 
God." 

"Thou  forgettest  the  Parthians,  O  caesar,"  said 
the  Rabbi." 


136      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Hadrian  looked  keenly  at  the  speaker. 

"What  of  the  Parthians?  "  said  he. 

"They  are  lions,"  the  Rabbi  replied. 

"A  hunter  kills  lions,"  the  emperor  rejoined. 

"But  not  those  lions;  if  they  were  let  loose  Rome 
would  tremble,"  said  the  Rabbi. 

"I  have  legions,"  said  Hadrian. 

"They  would  be  swept  away  as  by  a  whirlwind," 
was  the  Rabbi's  rejoinder. 

"I  '11  call  back  Severus  and  the  veterans  from 
Britannia,"  said  the  emperor. 

"An  uncertain  force  to  rely  on;  they  have  to 
cross  the  seas,  and  may  never  see  land  again,"  the 
Rabbi  persisted. 

"Why  dost  thou  say  all  this?  "  asked  the  emperor. 

The  Rabbi  was  silent. 

"Speak,"  commanded  Hadrian. 

"I  was  thinking  how  weak  even  a  powerful  king 
may  be  when  he  faces  the  elements  of  nature ;  and 
yet  these  are  but  the  servants  of  God." 

"I  believe  not  in  thy  God  ;  He  hath  no  form  ;  He 
is  not  tangible ;  He  hath  no  power;  He  hath  no  ser- 
vants other  than  the  Hebrews  whom  Rome  hath 
crushed." 

"Say  not  so,  O  caesar;  our  God  is  the  creator 
of  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  least  of  His  servants  is 
more  powerful  than  all  mortals." 

' '  But  I  cannot  see  Him  ;  nor  canst  thou  show  Him 
to  me." 

"No,  I  cannot  show  Him  to  thee;  for  no  mortal 
can  see  Him  and  live ;  but  I  can  show  thee  His  works 
and  His  servants  and  by  their  greatness  judge  then 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  137 

of  the  magnitude  of  the  Lord  God  of  Israel.     Look 
into  the  sun." 

"I  cannot;  it  hurts  the  eye,"  said  Hadrian. 

"And  thou  wouldst  look  at  the  Lord,  whose  ser- 
vant is  the  sun?  "  was  the  Rabbi's  reply.81 

Rabbi  Josua  was  one  of  the  few  who  were  given 
the  opportunity  to  speak  with  royal  personages  on 
the  questions  of  that  day,  and  he  invariably  gained 
their  respect.  Hadrian,  writing  to  his  wife,  speaks 
in  deferential  terms  of  Rabbi  Josua,  the  vice- 
patriarch  of  the  Hebrews."  The  relations  between 
Josua  and  the  Roman  emperor  are  told  with  Ori- 
ental fancy  in  the  Talmud."  It  narrates  how  one 
day  Hadrian  asked : 

'What  is  the  duration  of  a  snake's  pregnancy?  "  M 

"Seven  years,"  replied  Josua. 

"The  wise  men  of  the  Roman  Academy  have 
found  that  snakes  bring  forth  after  three  years," 
rejoined  the  emperor. 

"It  was  because  the  pregnancy  had  begun  four 
years  before  the  Roman  wise  men  observed  it,"  was 
the  retort,  the  meaning  of  which  is  clear  enough  in 
reference  to  the  Jewish  troubles." 

"But  the  men  of  the  Roman  Academy  are  indeed 
wise,"  urged  Hadrian. 

'We  of  Judah  are  wiser,"  as  proudly  said  Josua. 

"Then  go  to  Rome,"  commanded  the  caesar, 
"and  if  thou  art  wiser  conquer  them  in  discussion 
and  bring  them  to  me  here." 

"How  many  members  are  in  the  Academy?" 
queried  the  Rabbi. 

"Sixty." 


138       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"Then  give  me  a  ship  with  sixty  cabins  and  as 
many  chairs  in  each  cabin." 

The  remarkable  ship  was,  of  course,  furnished,  and 
in  it  Josua  sailed  to  Rome.  There  a  difficulty 
awaited  him.  The  Academy  was  a  secret  society  of 
the  most  rigorous  kind,  and  even  to  point  out  its 
place  of  meeting  was  forbidden  to  the  uninitiated. 
Josua  finally  discovered  the  butcher  who  carried 
daily  supplies  to  the  immured  sages.  He  found  the 
butcher  cutting  up  a  sheep  and  asked  him : 
Hast  thou  a  head  ? ' ' 

"I  have,"  replied  the  butcher. 

"Is  thy  head  for  sale,  and  for  how  much?" 

"It  is  for  sale  for  half  a  sus. " 

The  Rabbi  handed  over  the  haU-sus,  and  the 
butcher  tendered  the  sheep's  head. 

"It  is  not  that  I  have  bought  and  paid  for,"  said 
the  crafty  Rabbi;  "it  is  thy  own  head.  Now  if 
thou  wouldst  keep  it  thou  must  show  me  the  en- 
trance to  the  Academy  of  the  Wise." 

"But  the  guards  will  slay  me  if  I  point  it  out  to 
thee,"  said  the  alarmed  butcher. 

"If  thou  dost  not  show  it  to  me,  thou  must  sur- 
render thy  head,"  was  the  reply. 

However  Josua  was  good  enough  to  spend  his 
wisdom  in  a  solution  of  this  dilemma. 

"You  need  only  take  a  bundle  on  your  shoulder 
and  lay  it  down  for  a  moment  at  the  entrance  and 
pass  on,"  he  said. 

The  butcher  agreed  and  Josua  soon  stood  at  the 
Academy  gate. 

The  finding  the  entrance  was  only  the  first  diffi- 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  1 39 

culty  of  many.  The  Roman  Academy  of  the  tal- 
mudic  legend  was  like  one  of  the  Arabian  fairy 
palaces.  A  separate  guard  stood  outside  the  en- 
trance and  inside  the  main  gates  without  communi- 
cation between  them.  A  patrol  passed  at  stated 
times  to  see  that  no  visitor  left  by  the  entrance,  as 
the  outer  guards  were  forbidden  to  let  any  out 
though  he  might  pass  them  unquestioned  going  in. 
The  Rabbi  was  refused  admittance  at  the  inner 
portal,  and  death  would  be  his  doom  when  the 
patrol  should  arrive.  He  was  equal  to  the  occasion. 
The  entrance  was  covered  with  fine  sand  which 
showed  whether  any  one  had  passed  it  to  the  patrol. 
Josua  had  turned  his  sandals  backwards  when  he 
passed  the  outward  guard  and  when  repulsed  from 
the  gate  he  walked  away  with  his  footgear  in  its 
natural  position.  The  patrol  arrived  while  he  was 
hiding  within  the  entrance,  and  at  once  decided  that 
two  people  had  passed  out,  so  they  immediately 
executed  the  guards  in  the  style  so  common  in 
Oriental  legend.  Josua,  when  the  patrol  had  left, 
walked  boldly  into  the  Academy  itself.26 

The  Roman  sages  of  the  Talmud  had  a  primitive 
test  for  outside  visitors.  The  salutation  must  be 
addressed  in  proper  form  or  the  head  of  the  rash 
uninitiated  one  would  be  promptly  removed.  The 
sages  sat  in  peculiar  order.  The  juniors  had  the 
highest  seats,  to  give  the  impression  that  they  were 
highest  in  rank  and  entitled  to  the  first  salute. 
Josua  was  not  to  be  so  easily  fooled.  He  simply 
said,  "Peace  to  all  here  assembled,"  and  so  escaped 
the  risk  of  mistaking  the  precedence  due. 


140      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

They  recognized  his  right  to  retain  his  head  on 
this,  and  the  spokesman  asked  who  the  stranger 
was  and  what  he  wanted. 

"I  am  a  sage  from  Judea,  and  I  come  to  learn 
wisdom  of  the  sages  of  Rome,"  answered  Josua. 

'We  will  ask  thee  some  questions  to  test  thy  title 
to  be  called  a  sage. 

"I  am  willing  to  be  tested,"  said  Josua,  "but  it 
is  only  just  that  there  should  be  reward  for  wisdom. 
If  you  puzzle  me,  my  head  is  at  your  disposal,  if  you 
fail  to  puzzle  me,  you  shall  all  come  to  my  ship  to 
dine  there." 

They  agreed  that  the  proposal  was  fair,  and  the 
contest  of  wits  began. 

"If  a  man  has  been  rejected  by  one  woman  what 
will  be  his  thoughts  when  he  woos  a  woman  of  higher 
rank?"  was  the  first  question  proposed. 

Josua  took  a  hook  and  tapped  the  wall  of  the 
chamber  near  the  ground,  where  it  was  formed  of 
solid  marble.  He  could  find  no  crevice  to  insert  the 
point.  He  went  above  the  wainscot  to  the  wall  of 
smaller  blocks  and  found  a  joint  to  thrust  it  in 
easily.     Thereupon  he  said  : 

"The  man  who  did  not  succeed  with  one  woman 
thinks  he  may  succeed  even  with  one  of  higher  birth, 
as  she  may  be  intended  for  him  by  fate." 

"Will  a  man,  who  trusted  another  without  witness 
and  had  to  use  force  to  get  back  his  money,  lend 
again?"  was  the  second  query. 

"A  grass  seller  went  to  the  meadow  and  cut  a 
bundle  of  rush  grass  too  large  to  lift  upon  his  shoul- 
ders.    He  went  and  cut  more  grass  and  added  it  to 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN   HANANIAH  I41 

the  bundle  and  then  waited  till  a  man  came  and 
assisted  him.  Such  is  the  creditor  who,  failing  to 
properly  secure  his  money  with  the  first  debtor,  will 
be  more  careful  with  the  second,  but  he  will  con- 
tinue to  lend  money,  if  that  is  his  business." 

"Tell  us  lies,"  was  the  next  order,  and  Josua 
gave  his  fancy  rein. 

"We  had  a  mule,  which  gave  birth  to  a  little  mule; 
around  its  neck  we  found  a  document  on  which  was 
written:  'So  and  So  owes  our  house  one  hundred 
thousand  pieces  of  silver.'  "  " 

"Can  a  mule  give  birth?  "  they  said. 

"You  asked  me  to  tell  you  lies." 
'When  salt  putrefies,  how  can  it  be  cured?"  he 
was  asked. 

"By  the  afterbirth  of  a  mule." 

"But  is  it  possible  for  a  mule  to  have  an  after- 
birth?" 

"As  possible  as  for  salt  to  putrefy." 

"Build  a  house  in  the  air." 

'  Place  enough  brick  and  mortar  there  and  I  will 
build  the  house." 

'Who  can  place  brick  and  mortar  in  the  air?" 

"It  is  easier  than  to  build  a  house  there." 
'Where  is  the  centre  of  the  universe?  " 

"Straight  up  here  where  I  am  pointing  my  finger." 

"How  canst  thou  prove  it?" 

"If  you  don't  believe  me,  take  lines  and  measure 
the  universe." 

"On  yonder  meadow  is  a  cistern  :  bring  it  hither." 

"Make  ropes  of  bran,  and  I  will  haul  it  hither." 

"That  is  impossible." 


142       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"So  is  that  which  you  demand." 

"  Here  are  broken  millstones :  sew  them  together." 

'Here  is  a  piece  of  the  millstone:  twist  it  into 
thread  and  I  will  do  it." 

"But  that  is  impossible." 

"Not  any  more  than  your  request." 

'With  what  wouldst  thou  mow  a  field  where 
knives  grow?  " 

"With  the  horns  of  asses." 

' '  Have  asses  horns  ? ' ' 

"Do  knives  grow  on  a  field?  " 

'Here  are  two  eggs, — which  is  from  a  white  hen 
and  which  from  a  black  one?  "  they  asked  him. 

'Here  are  two  pieces  of  cheese, — which  is  from 
the  milk  of  a  black  goat  and  which  is  from  that  of  a 
white  one?"  he  asked  in  return. 

"How  doth  the  ghost  leave,  when  a  chicken  dieth 
in  its  unbroken  shell?"  they  continued. 

"The  same  way  it  entered,"  he  replied. 

"Show  us  an  object  which  hath  not  the  value  of 
the  damage  it  can  do?  " 

"Bring  hither  a  bastion." 

' '  We  could  not  get  it  into  the  building, ' '  they  said. 

"Take  axes  and  break  down  the  walls,  and  you 
will  have  an  object  which  hath  not  the  value  of  the 
damage  it  will  do,"  he  answered. 

The  Roman  sages  gave  up  the  task  of  puzzling 
the  sharp-witted  sage  from  Judea,  and  promised  to 
visit  his  ship,  but  not  in  a  body.  Josua  had  each 
visitor  shown  into  one  of  his  sixty  cabins  and 
when  all  were  on  board  he  hoisted  sail  and  carried 
the  Roman  sages  to  Alexandria,  where  he  presented 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  I43 

them  to  Hadrian.  The  latter,  on  hearing  of  the 
facts,  made  them  over  to  Josua's  disposition  as  un- 
worthy of  imperial  protection  after  such  an  intel- 
lectual defeat.  Josua,  according  to  the  legend,  set 
them  to  the  job  of  filling  a  bottomless  cask  with 
water,  at  which  they  toiled  till  their  shoulders  fell 
off  and  they  all  died.18 

The  sense  of  superior  wisdom  entertained  by  the 
Jewish  people  in  all  their  disasters  is  illustrated  well 
by  this  strange  tale,  where  Oriental  and  Western  wits 
are  represented  as  clashing  in  battle. 

Josua's  knowledge  of  human  nature  in  practical 
life  is  illustrated  by  another  anecdote. 

A  suspicious-looking  individual  begged  a  night's 
lodging  in  his  house.  The  Rabbi  fed  him,  as  hospi- 
tality required,  and  located  him  for  the  night  in  the 
attic  of  his  house,  where  some  valuables  were  stored. 
Though  a  strict  observer  of  hospitality  to  strangers, 
Josua  had  a  favorite  maxim,  "Think  every  man  a 
thief  till  he  is  proved  honest ;  but  meantime  treat 
him  as  civilly  as  the  president  of  the  Sanhedrin." 
He  doubted  his  unknown  guest,  and  when  the  house- 
hold was  at  rest  he  quietly  removed  the  ladder  which 
led  to  the  attic  and  then  retired. 

The  tramp  visitor  rose  in  the  night  and  packed  as 
much  as  he  could  carry  of  Josua's  household  goods; 
but  on  stepping  through  the  door  he  fell  and  broke 
his  legs.  He  was  found  in  this  condition  by  the 
Rabbi,  who  told  him  that  he  was  a  greater  fool  than 
knave.3* 

His  sense  of  wit  made  him  tell  stories  even  at  his 
own  expense. 


144       JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"Once,"  he  told,  "I  met  a  child  who  carried  a 
covered  platter. 

"  'What  is  in  the  platter? '  I  inquired. 

"  'If  my  mother  had  wanted  everybody  to  know, 
she  would  not  have  covered  it,'  said  the  child  and 
walked  on.so 

"Another  time,"  said  he,  "I  rode  up  to  a  well 
and,  seeing  a  maiden  with  a  jar  of  water,  begged  her 
for  a  drink. 

"  'Drink  thou,  Rabbi,  and  thine  ass  also,'  said  the 
maiden. 

"When  I  had  drank  enough,  I  said  to  her: 

"  'Thou  hast  done  like  Rebekah  at  the  well.' 

"  'Aye,  Rabbi,'  said  she,  'but  thou  hast  not  done 
as  Eliezer,  who  gave  Rebekah  costly  presents.'  "  " 

Josua  was  mystic  as  well  as  wit.  The  Talmud 
tells  of  him  many  wonders.  He  could  deal  with 
wizards  in  their  line  as  readily  as  with  politicians. 

One  day,  while  taking  a  bath  in  the  city  of  Tiberias, 
a  sorcerer,  thinking  to  have  some  merriment  at  the 
Rabbi's  expense,  cast  a  spell  upon  him,  and  as  he 
tried  to  leave  the  bathtub  his  limbs  were  paralyzed. 
He  guessed  who  had  caused  the  trouble,  and  spoke 
a  few  words,  when  lo,  the  sorcerer  was  rooted  to  the 
spot  where  he  stood.  Then  a  joke  suggested  itself 
to  the  Rabbi.  He  withdrew  the  spell  from  the 
sorcerer's  right  hand  and  left  foot,  and  as  he  stood 
near  the  door,  made  him  strike  each  newcomer  and 
kick  every  one  who  went  out  of  the  bath.  The 
master  of  the  bath  tried  to  eject  the  troublesome 
guest ;  but  neither  he  nor  all  his  assistants  could 
move  the  spellbound  man  from  the  spot. 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  I45 

"Release  me,  0  Rabbi!  "  cried  the  sorcerer. 

"Not  until  thou  hast  released  me,"  the  Rabbi 
answered. 

Having  released  each  other,  the  sorcerer  entered 
into  conversation  with  Rabbi  Josua.  He  boasted 
of  the  marvellous  feats  he  had  performed,  and  his 
repute  as  the  greatest  of  sorcerers. 

"In  good  sooth,"  said  the  Rabbi,  "I  believe  all 
thy  great  feats  were  probably  such  petty  tricks  as 
those  exhibited  a  while  ago." 

"I  can  accomplish  as  great  miracles  as  Moses," 
cried  the  sorcerer  angrily. 

Rabbi  Josua  expressed  his  desire  to  witness  some 
of  these  wonders.     Whereupon  the  sorcerer  said : 

"Come  to  the  seaside,  and  thou  shalt  see." 

They  went  to  the  seaside;  there  the  magician 
spoke  a  few  words,  and  the  waters  receded,  and  the 
deep  was  laid  bare. 

"Thou  art  indeed  a  sorcerer,"  said  the  Rabbi, 
"but  canst  thou  go  down  into  the  deep  like  Moses?  " 

"Aye,  and  more,"  replied  the  sorcerer,  and  he 
walked  upon  the  dry  bed  of  the  ocean.  But  Rabbi 
Josua  commanded  the  spirit  of  the  sea,  and  the  great 
waters  engulfed  the  sorcerer  and  drowned  him.3* 

Once  Rabbi  Josua  and  Rabbi  Eliezer,  travelling 
together,  came  to  a  town  where  some  Hebrews 
dwelt.  One  of  these  they  visited  and  were  received 
with  friendliness.  While  at  meat  the  Rabbis  noticed 
that  each  dish  was  taken  into  a  small  chamber  off 
the  dining-room,  and  then  brought  to  the  table  and 
placed  before  them.  The  travellers  asked  their  host 
the  reason. 


146      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"It  is  done, ' '  said  he, ' ' in  honor  of  my  aged  father, 
who  hath  vowed  not  to  leave  his  room  until  one  or 
more  of  the  sages  in  Israel  shall  have  entered  this 
house." 

'Tell  thy  father,"  said  Rabbi  Josua,  "that  sages 
in  Israel  are  sitting  at  thy  table." 

The  host  went  to  his  father's  room  and  soon  re- 
turned with  the  aged  man. 

' '  Rabbis, ' '  cried  the  old  man,  ' '  my  house  is  blessed 
from  this  day  forth,  and  joy  hath  come  into  my  heart 
at  beholding  you.  I  shut  myself  up  through  grief 
that  my  son  hath  no  issue.  I  prayed  long;  but  the 
Lord  heard  not  my  prayer,  and  then  I  vowed  not  to 
leave  the  four  walls  of  my  chamber  till  the  Lord  sent 
holy  men  to  my  house,  and  these  would  I  ask  to 
pray  for  my  son,  so  that  the  curse  of  childlessness 
be  removed." 

When  Rabbi  Josua  heard  the  man's  words,  he 
knew  that  it  was  the  malice  of  Satan  which  had 
afflicted  this  pious  house.  He  asked  for  some  flax- 
seed, which  he  mixed  and  spoke  some  cabalistic 
sentences.     Then  he  said  : 

'Thy  son  hath  been  bewitched  by  an  old  woman 
in  the  neighborhood;  summon  her." 

The  witch  was  summoned,  and  acknowledged  that 
she  had  put  a  spell  on  the  old  man's  son  by  means 
of  a  twisted  hair. 

"Give  me  the  twisted  hair,"  said  the  Rabbi. 

"I  cannot;  I  threw  it  into  the  sea,"  the  witch 
replied. 

Josua  commanded  the  spirit  of  the  sea  to  bring 
him  the  twisted  hair,  and,  having  it,  he  prayed  to 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN   HANANIAH  147 

the  Lord  to  grant  issue  to  this  pious  family.  The 
Lord  heard  the  Rabbi's  prayer,  and  the  old  man 
lived  to  see  a  grandson  born  unto  him  who  after- 
wards became  a  famous  Rabbi.33 

Once,  while  on  a  visit  to  Hadrian,  the  emperor's 
daughter  asked  Rabbi  Josua  if  it  was  true  that  the 
God  of  the  Hebrews  was  a  cabinetmaker,  as  the 
psalmist  says  (Psalm  civ.,  3). 

"Everything  that  King  David  says  is  true,"  re- 
plied the  Rabbi. 

"In  that  case  I  wish  he  would  make  me  a  spindle," 
merrily  exclaimed  the  princess. 

"Thy  wish,  O  princess,  shall  be  fulfilled,"  the 
Rabbi  seriously  replied. 

Hardly  had  he  finished  the  sentence  when  her 
body  was  covered  with  ulcers.  She  was  pronounced 
a  leper,  and  was  taken  to  the  lepers'  asylum  outside 
of  the  city.  There  she  was  given  a  spindle  with 
which  to  while  away  the  time. 

Shortly  afterwards,  Rabbi  Josua,  passing  by  the 
asylum,  saw  the  princess  at  the  spindle. 

"How  dost  thou  like  the  spindle,  which  our  Lord 
hath  given  thee?  "  he  asked. 

"I  do  not  like  it  at  all.  I  wish  He  would  take  it 
back,"  the  poor  princess  cried. 

"Our  God  never  takes  back  His  gifts,"  said  the 
Rabbi,  and  went  on.  Soon  after,  however,  he 
healed  her,  and  the  princess  never  again  demanded 
anything  in  jest  from  the  God  of  the  Hebrews.34 

Josua's  expressions  indicate  his  lovable  disposi- 
tion, his  liberal  mind,  and  utter  disregard  for  the 
cares  of  life  so  far  as  he  was  personally  concerned. 


I48       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Long  before  the  wealthy  Gamaliel  had  accorded  him 
the  pension  which  freed  him  from  the  necessity  of 
daily  toil,35  Josua  used  to  say: 

"The  Giver  of  Life  gives  also  wherewith  to 
live."36 

It  is  worth  while  to  quote  a  few  more  of  the  re- 
corded sayings  of  this  master  in  Israel,  who  by  a  rare 
exception  enjoyed  the  respect  and  good-will  of  his 
own  people  and  the  Gentiles  alike.  They  breathe  a 
mild  and  sententious  wisdom  not  bounded  by  the 
limits  of  Judaism  or  nationality. 

"If  a  needy  man  ask  alms  of  thee  in  the  morning, 
give  to  him.     If  he  ask  again  at  evening  then  give 

*  >    37 

again. 

"Alms  benefit  the  giver  more  than  the  receiver."  88 

"The  student  who  lets  his  knowledge  pass  from 
his  mind  is  like  a  woman  who  bears  children  only 
to  bury  them.  The  student  who  ceases  to  study  is 
like  the  sower  who  neglects  to  reap."  8B 

"The  Sabbath  observance  should  be  twofold:  part 
for  divine  service,  part  for  lawful  recreation  of  body 
and  mind."  40 

"It  is  well  for  a  man  not  to  touch  a  woman  las- 
civiously, but  he  that  will  not  touch  a  drowning 
woman  lest  he  be  tempted  is  a  pious  fool."  " 

This  is  a  sarcasm  on  the  fanatical  scrupulousness 
taught  by  some  Jews  of  his  day,  notably  a  certain 
class  of  Pharisees. 

"The  just  of  all  nations  shall  share  in  the  bliss  of 
the  future  life,"  is  a  remarkable  expression  of  Josua's 
spirit  of  liberality." 

His  relations  with  the  Christians  of  his  time  are 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN    HANANIAH  149 

not  directly  mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  but  the  tenor 
of  his  life  leaves  every  reason  to  believe  that,  like 
Eliezer,  Josua  was  familiar  with  them  and  the 
teachings  of  Christ.  He  was  by  nature  reticent  and 
guarded  in  his  public  utterances,  but  the  whole 
course  of  his  policy  indicates  that  he  did  not  share 
the  expectation  of  a  messianic  restorer  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  so  prevalent  among  his  countrymen 
at  the  time.  He  kept  aloof  from  the  national  con- 
spiracies which  resulted  in  the  rising  of  Bar  Kochba, 
and  did  not  go  near  the  Academy."  He  freely 
warned  his  people  of  their  folly  and  danger.  Though 
he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Hadrian,  the  Roman  em- 
peror, when  the  project  of  rebuilding  the  Jewish 
Temple  was  agitated  he  never  seems  to  have  urged 
the  proposed  restoration.  The  Talmud  has  no  hint 
of  any  such  action  of  his  in  any  of  its  numerous 
references  to  Josua.  His  mind  had  a  broader  grasp 
than  the  limits  of  Palestine.  He  looked  forward  to 
the  spread  of  the  moral  and  religious  principles  of 
the  law  among  the  outside  nations  as  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Jewish  race.  With  that  object  he  urged 
the  maintenance  of  peace  on  his  people,  and  he  gave 
his  most  earnest  efforts  to  the  task  of  conciliating 
the  good-will  of  the  learned  and  powerful  among  the 
Romans  to  Judaic  law  and  wisdom. 

Though  he  discouraged  the  wild  outburst  of  na- 
tional spirit  which  after  his  death  ended  in  the  final 
rebellion  of  Bar  Kochba,  his  patriotism  was  recog- 
nized by  even  the  fanatical  revolutionists.  All  the 
Jewish  factions  trusted  implicitly  in  his  honesty 
of  purpose  and  freely  used  his  influence  with  the 


150      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Roman  rulers  to  obtain  protection  from  oppression  at 
home.  He  never  used  that  influence  for  merely  per- 
sonal profit  or  betrayed  the  confidence  of  his  country- 
men by  sacrificing  their  real  interests  to  those  of  their 
foreign  masters.  Hence  the  respect  with  which  all 
the  talmudic  writers  speak  of  Josua  even  when  they 
did  not  agree  with  his  sentiments  towards  the  Chris- 
tians. "Who  knows  what  evil  the  Christians  may 
yet  bring  on  us,"  is  the  cry  of  a  talmudic  writer."4 

Josua  kept  the  even  tenor  of  his  way,  unmoved 
by  the  outbursts  of  fierce  patriotism.  "Forbearance 
is  better  than  daring, ' '  was  a  favorite  maxim  of  his 
in  those  troubled  times.  He  sympathized  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Nazarene,  and  his  influence  was  used 
for  the  protection  of  Christians  as  well  as  his  other 
countrymen.  In  the  Talmud  we  find  evidence  of  a 
remarkable  friendly  intercourse  between  some  of  the 
Rabbis  of  the  Sanhedrin  and  the  followers  of  Christ, 
which  seems  to  have  been  due  to  the  influence  of 
Josua.  The  public  discussion  of  the  fulfilment  of 
the  messianic  prophecies,  which  had  been  common 
and  bitter  at  a  former  period,  gradually  ceased  when 
his  influence  became  predominant  in  Palestine.  A 
large  body,  even  of  those  Jews  who  refused  to  ac- 
cept Jesus  as  the  promised  Messiah,  considered  the 
difference  between  themselves  and  the  Christians  on 
that  point  not  a  vital  one.  There  was  little  of  the 
fierce  hatred  which  developed  in  later  ages.  Even  a 
hundred  years  later  Jews  and  Christians  mingled  on 
friendly  terms  in  Palestine.  Rabbi  Judah  the  Prince 
entertained  a  Christian  guest  at  his  table. 

"Wilt  thou  say  grace  according  to  Jewish  fashion?" 


RABBI   JOSUA   BEN   HANANIAH  1 5  I 

he  asked  him,  "or  wilt  thou  receive  forty  shekels?" 
The  Christian  readily  agreed  to  say  grace  as  a  com- 
pliment to  his  host.46 

Josua  lived  to  an  advanced  age.  He  saw  the 
burial  of  his  friends  Eliezer  and  Gamaliel  II.  the 
president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  before  he  was  gathered 
to  his  fathers.  At  his  death,  though  he  had  kept 
aloof  from  the  society  of  the  Rabbis  of  the  national- 
ist school,"  it  was  felt  that  a  light  was  extinguished 
in  Israel.  As  the  Talmud  pithily  puts  it,  "Wise 
counsel  died  with  Josua."  47  Scarcely  was  he  in  the 
grave  when  the  great  rebellion  broke  out  which, 
after  temporary  success,  ruined  the  national  exist- 
ence of  his  people.  Of  that  movement  the  guiding 
spirit  was  one  not  of  Jewish  blood, — the  famous 
Akibah. 


CHAPTER   VII 

RABBI  AKIBAH 

IN  the  last  desperate  struggle  of  the  Jewish  people 
to  establish  an  independent  national  existence, 
the  central  figure  is  Rabbi  Akibah.  He  it  was  that 
called  from  obscurity  the  military  leader,  Bar  Kochba, 
who  for  a  time  was  hailed  as  the  very  Messiah.  In 
him  the  political  wisdom  of  Ben  Zakkai  was  blended 
with  the  mysticism  of  Ben  Dosa,  and  with  a  patriotic 
ardor  all  his  own.  He  was  great  among  the  greatest 
doctors  of  the  law,  as  well  as  a  political  leader  who 
swayed  the  popular  masses  by  the  power  of  his  word, 
and  led  them  on  through  a  two-years  struggle  with 
the  might  of  the  Roman  empire  such  as  has  hardly 
a  parallel  in  history. 

In  spite  of  his  fervid  Jewish  patriotism,  the  famous 
Rabbi  was  not  of  Jewish  race.  Elazar  ben  Azariah, 
the  assistant  president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  spoke  of  this 
in  a  eulogy  which  he  pronounced  on  him. 

"The  sages  of  Israel  are  but  garlic  peelings  to  me 
except  this  bald  head,  Akibah  ben  Joseph,  whose 
father  was  a  proselyte  of  righteousness." 

The  pride  of  race  so  deeprooted  in  the  Jewish 
people  makes  this  testimony  to  the  abilities  of  Akibah 
very  remarkable  in  the  mouth  of  Elazar. 

152 


RABBI   AKIBAH  153 

His  foreign  origin  was  not  the  only  difficulty 
which  Akibah  had  to  struggle  with  in  his  path  to 
the  eminence  he  at  last  attained.  He  began  life  as 
a  herder  of  cattle,  an  unlettered  peasant  who,  as  he 
said  of  himself,  "would  bite  a  scholar  like  a  snake  if 
he  met  one."3  He  was  forty  years  old  before  he 
conceived  the  thought  of  any  higher  career  in  life. 
His  inspiration  came  in  a  romantic  way.  Rachel, 
the  daughter  of  his  employer,  Calba  Sebuah,  fell  in 
love  with  the  handsome  herdsman.  Her  father's 
wealth  placed  him  among  the  foremost  of  his  nation. 
The  Talmud  says,  in  its  usual  florid  style,  that  he 
could  feed  all  Palestine  for  ten  years  from  his  stores. 
His  daughter's  attachment  to  her  father's  servant 
made  her  urge  him  to  enter  the  schools  of  the  law 
as  the  easiest  road  to  success  in  life. 

An  incident  determined  the  mind  of  Akibah  to  a 
life  of  study.  The  legend  makes  him  tell  it.  'My 
becoming  a  learned  man  began  thus,"  he  said. 
"One  day  I  found  a  corpse  in  the  fields.  I  took  it 
up  and  carried  it  to  the  burying-ground,  where  I 
interred  it.  Some  days  later  I  met  the  great  Rabbis 
Ben  Hyrkanos  and  Josua.  I  told  them  what  I  had 
done  for  the  body.  They  told  me  that  in  carrying 
that  body  I  had  broken  the  law  as  grievously  as  if  I 
had  shed  human  blood,  since  it  is  of  precept  that 
wherever  a  body  is  found  deserted  there  it  should  be 
interred.  I  said  to  myself,  if  I  had  sinned  so  griev- 
ously through  ignorance  when  I  thought  to  do  good, 
how  much  more  grievously  must  I  have  sinned  at 
other  times  when  I  had  no  good  intentions.  And  from 
that  moment  I  resolved  to  be  a  student  of  the  law." 


154      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Rachel,  however,  was  the  active  cause  of  Akibah's 
new  career.  She  engaged  to  wed  him  if  he  would 
promise  to  enter  the  school  of  Eliezer,  who  had 
been,  like  Akibah,  unlettered  till  advanced  in  life, 
but  was  then  a  master  in  Israel.  Her  father  had 
other  designs  in  view  for  his  daughter,  and  he  drove 
her  from  his  house  when  he  learned  of  this  engage- 
ment." Rachel  then  married  Akibah  legally  and 
shared  his  cabin  and  bed  of  straw.6  Even  food  was 
often  lacking  to  the  couple,  and  Rachel  cut  off  her 
hair  on  one  occasion  to  buy  bread  for  their  support.8 
Akibah  appreciated  his  wife's  devotion  and  cried 
out  in  transport,  "I  will  yet  buy  thee  a  golden  city 
for  this  when  I  am  wealthy,  as  I  shall  be."  7 

He  finally  entered  the  school  of  Eliezer  as  she 
had  asked  him  to  do."  Rachel  accepted  the  separa- 
tion gladly  for  the  sake  of  the  future  greatness  which 
she  anticipated  with  prophetic  eye  for  her  loved 
husband. 

Akibah's  experience  in  the  school  which  he  entered 
at  so  advanced  an  age  was  no  easy  one.  Eliezer  was 
a  stern  master,  and  he  sometimes  sneered  at  the  task 
which  Akibah  had  undertaken. 

"Thou  wouldst  be  a  famous  man,"  he  told  him 
once,  "and  thou  mayest,  but  as  yet  thou  hast  not 
shown  brains  to  make  a  cowherd." 

"No,  not  even  a  good  shepherd,"  answered  the 
disciple  humbly,  and  his  answer  mollified  the  mas- 
ter's severity.9 

He  retained  a  remarkable  modesty  regarding  him- 
self long  after  he  had  became  famous  in  the  Sanhed- 
rim    Eliezer,  in  his  pride  of  intellect,  once  said : 


RABBI   AKIBAH  155 

"Were  all  men  writers,  with  the  ocean  for  ink,  all 
reeds  pens,  and  all  heaven  and  earth  for  parchment, 
they  could  not  write  out  all  that  I  know  of  the  law, 
yet  I  only  know  of  the  law  as  much  as  a  man  might 
take  of  water  from  the  ocean  on  a  needle-point." 

"I  cannot  say  so  much  of  myself,"  Akibah  mod- 
estly replied,  "I  have  gained  but  such  knowledge  of 
the  law  as  one  gains  of  a  Paradise-apple  when  he 
inhales  its  perfume,  or  of  a  lamp  when  he  lights  a 
candle  from  its  blaze."  10 

His  abilities,  however,  soon  attracted  notice  among 
his  fellow-students  in  Eliezer's  school.  He  was 
recognized  as  a  master  and  followed  by  disciples 
while  yet  a  student.  One  day,  when  the  hall  was 
crowded  with  debaters,  Akibah  could  not  enter  for 
the  throng.  A  strictly  legal  question  was  raised  and 
debated,  but  though  the  master  Eliezer  presided, 
the  students  would  not  hear  a  decision  in  Akibah's 
absence.  "Legal  lore  is  without,"  was  the  general 
cry,  and  Eliezer  had  to  pass  to  another  subject,  this 
time  of  Holy  Writ.  "Scripture  lore,  too,  is  with- 
out," was  proclaimed,  and,  on  a  third  point  being 
proposed,  all  united  in  bringing  Akibah  in  with 
triumph  and  seating  him  beside  Eliezer." 

The  admiration  thus  shown  for  Akibah's  talent 
was  well  deserved.  His  powers  of  analysis  explained 
the  whole  mass  of  Scripture  lore  with  a  fulness  and 
clearness  beyond  that  of  the  most  famous  masters. 
He  classified  the  traditions  of  the  past,  drew  laws 
from  them,  and  found  new  hidden  meanings  in  every 
phrase.  In  Eastern  hyperbole  the  rabbinical  writers 
tell  that   when   Moses  entered   heaven  he  saw  the 


156      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Lord  crowning  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
and  when  he  reverently  asked  for  whom  this  work 
was  being  done,"  the  Lord  replied: 

"Hereafter  a  man  will  exist  by  name  Akibah  the 
son  of  Joseph,  who  will  draw  countless  laws  from 
every  dot  of  these  letters."  13 

Another  and  more  fanciful  legend  tells  how  the 
first  father,  Adam,  was  shown  by  the  Lord  all  the 
coming  generations  of  man  and  the  leaders  among 
them.  When  Akibah  was  shown  to  him,  Adam  re- 
joiced to  see  one  so  learned,  but  he  grieved  for  the 
sore  death  that  was  to  befall  him.'4  Such  legends 
show  the  high  estimate  placed  on  the  mental  powers 
of  Akibah  by  his  contemporaries.  The  lore  of  ages 
of  Judaism  found  in  him  its  best  exponent  in  the 
judgment  of  his  fellows. 

When  Akibah  found  himself  thus  honored  by  his 
associates  in  Eliezer's  school,  he  thought  of  his 
faithful  wife  and  determined  to  visit  her.  With  the 
development  of  his  intellectual  powers  he  could  ap- 
preciate more  justly  the  sacrifice  she  had  made  for 
him  when  only  a  hired  shepherd,  and  he  resolved  to 
repay  it  abundantly.  He  was  already  himself  a 
lecturer  whom  crowds  of  the  most  ardent  young  men 
followed,  as  later  the  French  students  of  Brittany 
followed  Abelard.  He  invited  them  to  accompany 
him  on  an  excursion  into  the  country,  to  the  vil- 
lage where  Rachel  dwelt  in  obscurity.  A  crowd 
of  disciples  I6  followed  his  steps,  eager  to  profit  by 
the  lessons  he  gave  them  on  the  way,  and  to 
show  him  honor.  When  he  drew  near  the  hamlet 
where   his  wife  dwelt,  Akibah    bade   his   followers 


RABBI    AKIBAH  I  57 

stop  while  he  went  on  alone  to  his  wife's  humble 
dwelling. 

Rachel's  lot  had  been  a  specially  hard  one  since 
her  husband's  departure  for  Jerusalem.  Her  father 
had  offered  to  receive  her  back  to  his  home  if  she 
would  forever  renounce  her  coarse  peasant  husband, 
but  the  faithful  Rachel  refused  that  condition.  She 
continued  to  live  in  the  cabin  where  Akibah  had  left 
her,  supporting  herself  by  daily  toil  among  the 
peasant  women  of  the  village.  She  mixed  but  little 
in  their  daily  gossip,  and  many  regarded  her  reserve 
as  pride.  They  delighted  to  insult  the  high-born 
lady  who  had  been  reduced  to  their  own  poor  con- 
dition. They  called  her  "a  living  widow,"  and 
taunted  her  with  what  they  called  her  desertion  by 
her  husband.  Rachel  bore  it  all  in  her  strong  faith 
in  Akibah 's  future  eminence,  and  when  from  time  to 
time  news  reached  her  of  the  fame  he  was  winning 
in  the  distant  city,  she  forgot  every  suffering  for  joy. 
She  had  not  heard  of  his  approach  to  her  dwelling, 
when  he  came  with  his  disciples. 

It  was  dusk  when  Akibah  approached  the  cot- 
tage of  his  wife.  When  he  entered  its  inclosure  he 
paused  for  a  while.  Then  a  harsh  voice  from  within 
grated  on  his  ear.  It  was  a  neighbor's,  who  had 
come  to  pay  a  visit  to  Rachel  in  no  friendly  spirit. 

'Thou  art  proud,  Rachel,  and  thinkest  thyself 
better  than  the  rest  of  us  villagers,"  said  the  visitor 
as  Akibah  listened. 

"Not  their  better,"  was  the  reply,  "but  I  am  the 
wife  of  Akibah,  and  my  lord  is  a  master  in  Israel." 

"Akibah's  wife!"  said  a  man's  voice  ironically; 


158      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

' '  Akibah's  wife,  cursed  by  her  father ;  Akibah's  wife, 
a  beggar. 

"I  am  rich  beyond  measure  in  my  husband's  love," 
said  Rachel.     "His  glory  is  mine." 

' '  Love  and  glory  indeed  !  Thy  husband  hath  aban- 
doned thee ;  thou  art  only  a  living  widow ;  he  hath 
been  years  away, —  where  is  his  love?"  came  the 
female  voice. 

' '  I  fear  not.  My  husband  hath  been  away  for  years 
to  study  the  divine  Law.  He  will  come  when  the 
time  is  fit.  Who  am  I  to  hinder  his  studies?  Let 
him  study ;  even  if  twelve  years  more  are  needed  to 
finish  his  work  let  him  stay  twelve  years.  Love  is 
strong :  it  lasteth.  It  endureth  forever,"  was  Rachel's 
answer.18 

Akibah  was  about  to  enter  and  confound  the  ma- 
levolent neighbors,  but  a  consideration  entered  his 
mind.  "If  I  go  in,"  he  said,  "I  shall  not  be  able 
to  part  again  from  my  wife  for  any  motive;  yet 
my  work  is  not  done.  I  am  but  a  scholar  yet. 
When  I  become  of  the  Sanhedrin  of  Israel  I  shall 
return  never  more  to  separate  from  her.  Till  then  I 
shall  remember  thy  words,  O  wife ;  for,  verily,  great 
is  thy  merit,  and  it  shall  be  made  greater  by  the 
knowledge  I  shall  acquire.  Back  I  go,  then,  to  fur- 
ther work  and  study  that  I  may  be  worthy  of  thee, 
Rachel." 

With  this  apostrophe  Akibah  stole  away  from  the 
cottage,  went  back  to  his  waiting  disciples,  and  re- 
turned with  them  to  the  Academy.  His  mind  was 
made  up  for  a  wider  range  of  studies  than  those  of 
his  master  Eliezer.     In  the  national  ferment  then 


RABBI   AKIBAH  I  59 

prevalent,  new  schools,  both  political  and  religious, 
had  sprung  up  in  Judea.  The  traditional  school  of 
Hillel  was  still  in  possession  of  the  Sanhedrin  and 
recognized  as  the  orthodox  learning.  There  were 
other  masters,  however,  men  of  a  new  learning, 
who  without  rejecting  the  received  doctrines  added 
to  them  new  studies  and  methods  of  interpretation. 
Politics  were  also  involved  in  the  scholastic  questions 
of  the  time.  The  older  Rabbis,  who  dominated  the 
great  colleges,  were  afraid  of  any  resistance  to  the 
Roman  power,  of  which  they  had  so  terrible  an  ex- 
perience in  the  days  of  Titus.  The  younger  genera- 
tion of  students  chafed  under  the  foreign  rule  and 
hoped  that  they  would  yet  be  strong  enough  to  re- 
store the  independence  of  Israel  by  armed  force. 
The  messianic  leader,  it  was  expected  by  many, 
would  soon  arise  to  crush  the  legions  and  restore 
both  the  Temple  and  the  throne  of  David.  Mys- 
ticism was  mingled  to  a  large  extent  with  the  patri- 
otic aspirations  for  self-government  and  possibly  a 
world-wide  Jewish  empire. 

The  student  element  of  this  patriotic  party 
gathered  itself  around  a  famous  doctor  then  in 
Jerusalem,  Nahum  of  Gamsu.17  He  was  distin- 
guished as  a  scholar.  He  had  introduced  a  new 
system  of  interpretation  which  met  with  high  ap- 
proval from  the  learned  and  drew  crowds  to  his 
lectures.  None  were  admitted  but  such  as  were 
already  familiar  with  the  received  interpretations  of 
the  law.  Nahum's  teaching  was  for  advanced 
scholars.  He  discussed  recent  decisions  according 
to  a  system  devised   by  his  own  ingenuity,  which 


l6o      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

found  new  meanings  in  the  sacred  text  by  certain 
rules  of  interpretation.  Indeed,  he  was  a  mystic  of 
the  school  of  Ben  Dosa,1'  as  well  as  a  scholar,  and 
moreover  he  was  devoted  to  the  plans  of  the  party 
among  the  nation  then  plotting  an  insurrection 
against  the  Roman  rule.  His  teaching  was  mainly 
directed  to  strengthening  the  patriotism  of  his 
scholars  and  nerving  their  minds  for  a  struggle  of 
life  and  death  in  behalf  of  the  independence  of  his 
native  land.  A  fatalist  in  belief,  his  favorite  maxim 
was,  "Gam  zu  letobah"  (This,  too,  is  for  the  best).18 
With  this  remark  he  faced  every  misfortune  stoic- 
ally, and  he  endeavored  to  instil  the  same  spirit 
into  the  young  men  who  followed  his  lectures.  He 
hated  Rome  with  a  mighty  hate.  The  submissive 
course  of  the  Rabbis  of  Hillel's  school  was  repugnant 
to  his  nature.  He  would  have  no  intercourse  with 
the  heathen,  he  would  not  admit  Roman  customs 
nor  dress  to  use  in  Judea,  nor  would  he  court  the 
favor  of  Roman  governors  by  flattery.  He  was  a 
Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  and  he  was  ready  to  give 
his  life  for  his  people.  He  impressed  upon  his  dis- 
ciples the  importance  of  maintaining  the  spirit  of 
union  among  themselves  as  a  means  of  preventing 
the  fall  of  the  House  of  Israel.  He  bade  them  avoid 
everything  Roman.  Rome,  he  said,  has  blinded  your 
eyes  that  you  should  not  see  your  true  interests; 
she  has  cut  off  your  hands  that  you  may  not  defend 
yourselves,  and  your  feet  so  that  you  can  seek  no 
alliances  abroad  among  her  foes;  but  so  long  as  dis- 
sension does  not  reign  among  yourselves  she  cannot 
crush  you. 


RABBI   AKIBAH  l6l 

A  legend  expresses  this  teaching  of  Nahum.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Talmud  the  famous  master  himself 
was  blind,  crippled,  and  without  hands,  and  more- 
over his  body  was  covered  with  ulcers,  a  punishment 
for  the  tardy  attention  he  accorded  a  man  he  found 
starving  on  the  highway,  and  who  died  ere  the 
Rabbi  reached  him.  Nahum  looked  upon  the  dis- 
ease that  soon  after  robbed  him  of  sight  and  the 
use  of  his  limbs  as  a  retribution  sent  by  heaven  to 
punish  him  for  his  guilt.20  He  lived  in  a  hut  whose 
walls  threatened  hourly  to  collapse  and  which  was 
overrun  with  insects  so  that  the  feet  of  his  bedstead 
stood  in  pails  of  water  to  keep  the  ants  from  devour- 
ing the  invalid.  His  pupils  at  last  got  his  consent 
to  remove  him  to  a  better  dwelling. 

"My  children,"  said  he,  "remove  everything  first ; 
the  house  will  stand  while  I  am  in  it." 

The  disciples  obeyed,  and  hardly  had  they  carried 
the  bed-ridden  Nahum  out  when  the  house  fell  with 
a  crash.  They  then  saw  that  it  was  his  sanctity 
alone  that  kept  the  walls  standing.  In  like  manner 
the  known  rottenness  of  the  temporal  government 
of  the  Jews  was  checked  by  the  spirit  of  patriotism 
kept  alive  by  Nahum  in  his  people.  They  might 
be  blind,  crippled,  and  without  hands  for  defence, 
but  a  higher  power  still  kept  their  tottering  national 
government  intact  as  by  a  miracle. 

To  Nahum's  school  Akibah  joined  himself  after 
his  visit  to  Rachel's  cottage.  He  seemed  to  have 
then  definitely  conceived  the  plan  of  combining  all 
the  forces,  moral,  intellectual,  and  material,  of  his 
countrymen  for  a  new  struggle  against  the  Roman 


l62      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

power.  To  that  end  he  would  make  himself  equally 
at  home  in  every  school  of  Jewish  thought.  The 
mystic  Nahum  became  his  master  after  the  prudent 
Eliezer.  He  afterwards  frequented  the  schools  of 
other  famous  Rabbis,  of  Josua,  of  Gamaliel  II.,  and 
in  all  his  learning  was  fully  recognized."1 

He  pushed  his  studies  outside  the  Jewish  law  and 
traditions.  He  studied  the  doctrines  of  the  Gnos- 
tics, the  rites  of  the  heathen  nations,  and  their  ways 
of  life.  Soon  his  name  became  famous  as  a  prodigy 
of  learning  through  Palestine.  He  now  fulfilled  his 
promise  and  returned  to  his  wife  Rachel  to  have 
her  share  the  benefits  of  the  exalted  position  he  had 
gained.  The  crowd  that  gathered  around  the  popu- 
lar hero  in  the  village  was  so  dense  that  Rachel  could 
not  get  through  it  when  she  tried.  A  man  was 
pushing  her  back  when  Akibah  saw  him  and  stayed 
his  hand. 

"Lay  not  a  hand  on  her,"  he  said,  "for  all  that  I 
am  and  all  that  you  are  through  me  is  due  to  this 
woman."  aa 

Another  joy  was  in  store  for  the  former  shep- 
herd. Calba  Sebuah,  Rachel's  father,  in  his  first 
anger  at  her  marriage,  had  made  a  solemn  vow  never 
to  receive  the  low-born  husband  into  his  house.  He 
had  later  repented  of  his  promise,  and  especially 
when  his  daughter  refused  to  return  to  him  unless 
in  company  with  her  chosen  partner.  But  a  vow 
must  be  kept  if  once  made,  unless  dispensed  by  the 
authority  of  the  religious  teachers  of  Judah.  Calba 
resolved  to  seek  this  dispensation,  and  when  word 
came  to  him  that  a  great,  even  one  of  the  greatest, 


RABBI   AKIBAH  163 

doctors  of  the  law  had  arrived  at  his  village  Calba 
went  to  seek  him."  He  was  admitted,  told  his  case 
and  asked  the  aid  of  the  Rabbi. 

"Didst  thou  vow  against  Akibah?'  asked  he 
calmly. 

'Yes,  Master,  even  against  the  man  who  married 
my  child  against  my  will ;  but  he  is  gone  and  I  de- 
sire my  child's  welfare." 

'  Knowest  thou  what  hath  become  of  Abikah?  " 
'I  do  not;  but  a  father's  anger  passeth.     I  for- 
give even  him,"  was  the  answer. 

"Forgiveness  is  a  great  merit.  Mercy  to  others 
is  God's  command.  Thou  shalt  find  reward  because 
thou  hast  shown  mercy.  Know,  now,  that  I  am  he 
against  whom  thy  wrath  was  kindled  and  thy  vow 
made;  I  am  Abikah." 

The  father  fell  down  and  kissed  the  master's  feet. 

"Forgive  me  thou,"  he  said;  "forgive  a  father 
whose  pride  was  greater  than  his  love  for  his  child." 

Akibah  raised  the  old  man  and  assured  him  that 
he  was  forgiven. 

"Whatever  the  Merciful  doth  is  for  the  best,"  he 
repeated,  and  the  reconciliation  was  complete. 

Calba  took  Akibah  and  his  daughter  to  his  home. 
He  shared  his  vast  possessions  with  them.  He  had 
lands  and  money  and  richly  laden  ships,  and  of  all  he 
gave  a  half  to  the  master  in  Israel  who  had  wedded 
his  child." 

The  wealth  of  Calba  Sebuah  insured  the  posi- 
tion of  Akibah  in  the  Jewish  commonwealth  as  it 
still  existed  under  the  Roman  rule.  Then  as  now 
wealth  played  a  greater  part  in  political  success  than 


164      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

mere  learning  or  personal  merit.  The  son-in-law  of 
Calba  was  called  to  a  seat  in  the  national  council 
under  the  presidency  of  the  second  Gamaliel.  The 
policy  of  the  Roman  emperors  left  the  subject  na- 
tions a  large  amount  of  self-government,  especially 
in  the  Eastern  provinces.  Though  the  authority  of 
the  Roman  governors  was  supreme  in  Palestine,  the 
Jewish  people  continued  to  be  ruled  by  their  own 
law  and  its  recognized  exponents  in  the  matters  of 
daily  life.  As  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrin  the  former 
shepherd  was  now  a  ruler  and  judge  as  well  as  a 
public  teacher.  He  showed  himself  equally  capable 
in  those  practical  functions  as  he  had  in  the  debates 
of  the  schools.  He  struck  out  a  course  of  action  for 
himself  as  a  judge,  based  rather  on  broad  general 
principles  than  on  the  technicalities  which  were 
prevalent  in  the  Jewish  courts  of  his  day.  A  cele- 
brated Rabbi,  Tarphon,  was  frequently  in  collision 
with  Akibah's  decisions,  and  some  curious  instances 
are  told  in  the  Talmud.  On  one  occasion  a  man 
had  promised  to  marry  one  of  five  sisters,  but  could 
not  make  up  his  mind  as  to  which.  Each  of  the 
five  demanded  the  dower  which  by  Jewish  law 
should  be  paid  for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage. 
The  rival  judges  gave  opinions  on  the  case.'6  Rabbi 
Tarphon  decided  that  the  recreant  suitor  should 
formally  release  all  the  prospective  brides  from  en- 
gagement and  leave  the  dower  to  be  divided  between 
them.  Akibah  required  him  to  pay  the  full  dower 
to  each." 

Another  time  a  man  was  brought  before  him  who 
had  sent  his  wife  away  but  refused  to  pay  her  more 


RABBI   AKIBAH  165 

than  half  of  the  dower  he  had  settled  on  her  at  mar- 
riage. He  claimed  that  his  whole  living  was  only 
equal  to  that  amount,  and  that  by  another  law  she 
was  only  entitled  to  half  his  possessions.  Akibah 
settled  the  claim  shortly. 

"Thou  must  pay  to  the  full  what  thou  didst 
promise,  though  thou  hadst  to  sell  the  hair  of  thy 
head  to  pay." 

The  husband  decided  to  hold  on  to  both  wife  and 
property,  and  divorce  was  stopped." 

Though  the  law  as  laid  down  provided  a  definite 
fine  (four  hundred  sus)  for  personal  insults  offered, 
it  had  become  customary  in  the  rabbinical  courts 
to  grade  the  fine  according  to  the  rank  of  the  parties. 
Akibah  held  that  in  the  administration  of  justice  all 
children  of  Abraham  should  be  held  equal,  and  that 
penalties  for  personal  offences  should  not  depend  on 
rank  or  wealth. 

A  decision  recorded  of  Akibah 's  is  worth  recalling 
as  an  illustration  of  the  customs  of  the  time  in  Pales- 
tine. A  man  had  a  quarrel  with  a  woman,  and  in  it 
he  pulled  off  the  veil  which  covered  her  head.  By 
the  law  this  was  an  insult  of  the  grossest  kind,  and 
punishable  with  a  fine  of  four  hundred  pence  (sus). 
Five  insults  were  thus  classified  as  equal,  namely,  to 
pull  a  man's  hair  or  ear,  to  tear  off  his  coat,  or  spit 
in  his  face.'*  Akibah  heard  the  complaint  and  gave 
judgment  for  the  legal  damages.  The  defendant 
pleaded  for  time,  and  then  concocted  a  scheme  to 
evade  judgment.  He  employed  a  man  to  drop  a  jar 
of  oil  near  the  woman  as  she  passed  in  the  street. 
The  bait  took,  and  she  lifted  the  veil  from  her  head 


l66     JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

to  anoint  her  hair  with  the  oil.  A  witness  immedi- 
ately reported  the  occurrence  and  charged  her  with 
infamy  on  the  ground  that  a  woman  was  forbidden 
to  unveil  herself  in  public.  As  in  other  Eastern 
countries  this  was  held  an  act  of  gross  indecency, 
and  the  defendant  used  it  as  an  argument  that  she 
must  be  a  person  of  bad  character  and  not  entitled 
to  the  damages  already  adjudged  her.  Akibah  re- 
fused this  conclusion  and  renewed  his  decision 
emphatically.29 

Akibah's  maxims  fill  a  large  space  in  the  Talmud 
legend.  They  are  terse  and  lofty  in  tone,  and  in 
keeping  with  the  tenor  of  his  life. 

"Levity  and  jesting  lead  to  lewdness."  sn 

"Strictly  attend  to  the  exact  words  in  Holy  Writ. 
They  are  safeguards  of  the  law." 

"Charity  is  the  safeguard  of  riches." 

"Silence  is  the  safeguard  of  wisdom." 

"Pledges  of  temperance  are  the  guard  of  temper- 
ance." 

"Great  is  man's  privilege  that  he  has  been  made 
in  God's  image,  but  greater  is  the  privilege  to  know 
this." 

"Israel  is  blessed  in  that  he  is  the  Lord's  child, 
but  more  blessed  in  his  knowledge  that  he  is  such." 

"Israel  is  honored  by  possession  of  the  Jewel  of 
the  law;  but  more  honored  in  being  allowed  to 
know  the  value  of  that  Jewel." 

"  The  Lord  knoweth  all,  yet  man's  will  is  free  to 
act." 

"The  world  is  ruled  with  love,  yet  that  love  is 
according  to  man's  work  and  good-will.31 


RABBI    AKIBAH  167 

"Everything  man  hath  is  but  a  loan." 

"Wealth  passeth  away." 

"A  net  is  spread  over  all  that  liveth,"  that  is, 
man  is  held  by  invisible  bonds  of  fate.33 

This  axiom  is  in  accordance  with  the  fatalism  so 
marked  in  other  utterances  of  Akibah.  His  sum- 
mary of  human  life  and  its  many  temptations  and 
trials  is  in  true  Oriental  style. 

'The  market  is  open;  good  and  evil  are  spread 
before  man.  The  merchant  offers  credit  —  so  sin 
offers  temptation.  The  account  book  is  open  and 
the  hand  writes  down  the  debts,  but  the  collectors 
follow  day  by  day,  and  they  take  payment  whether 
the  debtor  will  or  not,  for  the  collectors  fail  not  in 
their  work — so  sin  writes  its  account  on  body  and 
soul.  After  debauch  cometh  suffering  and  pain. 
Merciless  devils  torture  the  sinner.  He  has  enjoyed 
his  sin,  he  must  pay  for  his  enjoyment.  The  last 
verdict  is  that  of  Truth,  and  everything  must  appear 
when  God  comes  to  judge."  3S 

That  a  shepherd  of  foreign  race  should  have  be- 
come a  ruler  and  judge  in  the  Jewish  commonwealth 
by  sheer  mental  power  was  a  remarkable  fact,  but 
it  did  not  satisfy  the  ambition  of  Akibah.  When 
his  master  Eliezer  said  that  Akibah  wished  to  be 
world-famous  he  unconsciously  divined  the  secret 
aspirations  of  the  shepherd  student.  Akibah  was 
not  content  with  being  a  foremost  man  among  his 
own  people.  He  aspired  to  absolute  rule,  and  to 
an  authority  equal  or  superior  to  that  of  the  Ro- 
man emperor  himself.  Though  the  Hebrews  had 
bent  to  the  power  of  Rome  they  still  thirsted  for 


l68      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

independence.  In  their  hearts  they  believed  them- 
selves superior  to  their  heathen  masters.  As  the  de- 
positaries of  the  divine  revelation,  the  chosen  people 
of  the  Almighty,  they  thought  themselves  by  natural 
right  the  first  among  mankind.  They  chafed  under 
the  haughty  rule  of  the  foreigner.  Akibah  shared 
the  popular  feeling  in  this  respect.  What  was  more, 
he  believed  it  possible  to  win  national  independence 
even  from  the  mighty  Empire.  He  shared  the  be- 
lief in  the  superiority  of  the  Jewish  race,  but  his  be- 
lief was  of  a  material  kind.  That  Jewish  intellect 
was  more  subtle;  that  Jewish  patriotism  was  stronger 
than  Roman ;  that  Jewish  valor  could  overcome  the 
disciplined  Roman  legions,  if  well  directed,  were  all 
beliefs  with  Akibah.  He  devoted  himself  to  organize 
the  Jewish  nation  for  a  new  struggle  with  the  same 
persevering  energy  he  had  shown  in  winning  his 
way  from  the  plough  to  the  Sanhedrin  at  middle 
life.  He  would  restore  not  only  the  independence 
of  his  people,  but  would  found  a  Jewish  empire. 
His  conception  of  the  future  of  his  race  was  an  em- 
pire such  as,  five  centuries  later,  was  actually  realized 
by  an  Arab  camel-driver.  Akibah  may  in  many  re- 
spects be  compared  to  Mohammed,  though  the  re- 
sult of  his  enterprise  was  so  different  for  his  people 
and  himself.  He,  as  well  as  Mohammed,  was  in- 
fluenced by  his  Jewish  mother,  and  the  man  he 
afterwards  brought  forth  to  lead  his  people  against 
the  Romans  was  of  Jewish  blood  only  on  his  mother's 
side.  Mohammed  proclaimed  himself  the  Prophet 
of  Allah :  even  so  Akibah  assumed  but  the  dig- 
nity of   forerunner  of   the   Messiah  he  would  give 


RABBI    AKIBAH  1 69 

to  his  people  for  the  realization  of  his  dreams  of 
empire. 

His  entrance  in  the  Sanhedrin  was,  then,  only  a 
step  to  a  mightier  task.  He  gave  himself  up  to  it 
entirely.  He  fanned  the  religious  fervor  of  his  na- 
tion as  a  powerful  stimulus  to  the  political  struggle 
he  planned.  He  encouraged  the  national  discontent 
with  Roman  rule  by  constant  secret  lessons.  He 
strengthened  the  influence  of  the  Sanhedrin  as  a 
means  of  preserving  unity  in  the  nation.  For  that 
end  he  sacrificed  his  former  master,  Eliezer,  when 
the  latter  refused  on  principle  to  accept  the  vote  of 
the  majority  as  the  supreme  law.  He  carried  the 
decree  of  excommunication  to  Eliezer  personally, 
and  thus  endeavored  to  secure  the  good-will  of  the 
fallen  teacher.  He  also  succeeded  in  impressing  his 
colleagues  in  the  Sanhedrin  with  a  fear  of  his  in- 
fluence  and  ability,  which  kept  the  majority  from 
any  direct  condemnation  of  his  revolutionary  pro- 
jects even  if  they  did  not  approve  them  openly. 

He  built  up  his  reputation  among  the  doctors  as  a 
means  of  influencing  the  people.  He  was  the  first 
to  reduce  to  system  the  mass  of  legal  decisions  which 
formed  the'  'oral  law  "  of  the  Rabbis.34  He  arranged 
and  methodized  the  AgadaJi,  that  important  part  of 
Hebrew  literature  of  which  the  style  is  reflected  in 
the  writings  of  Paul  of  Tarsus.  He  was  almost 
another  Ezra  in  reforming  the  law." 

His  attention  was  even  given  to  the  hidden  sciences 
of  magic  and  kindred  subjects  in  favor  among  his 
countrymen.  The  students  of  the  Cabalah  believed 
they  could  find  the  secrets  of  nature  in  the  mystic 


170      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

construction  of  the  Tetragrammaton,  and  many  stu- 
dents lost  their  reason  or  their  belief  in  the  mazes 
of  the  study  of  magic.  Akibah  seems  to  have  dipped 
into  them  as  a  part  of  his  task  of  swaying  the  popu- 
lace against  Rome.  The  Talmud  figuratively  tells 
that  four  men  were  boldest  in  their  exploration  of 
the  mystic  pardes  or  paradise.36  Ben  Azzai  looked 
in  and  then  died  ;  Ben  Zoma  looked  and  straightway 
became  mad ;  Acher  looked  and  he  destroyed  the 
planets  (became  an  atheist) ;  Akibah  looked  and 
went  away  in  peace.37  This  seems  to  refer  to  some 
actual  occurrence  in  the  life  of  one  or  all  of  the  four 
men  named,  but  Akibah's  record  is  the  most  im- 
portant as  a  testimony  to  public  belief  in  his  regard. 

It  was  not  to  study,  however,  that  Akibah  de- 
voted himself  mainly.  His  political  projects  called 
for  active  work,  and  the  wealth  of  his  father-in-law 
was  used  freely  in  the  propaganda  of  the  Jewish 
revolution.  He  travelled  through  many  lands,  and 
everywhere  enlisted  adherents  and  collected  abun- 
dant funds  through  the  Jews  of  those  and  other 
lands.  In  Palestine  he  supported  numerous  poor 
scholars  who  became  his  devoted  agents.  Foremost 
among  his  assistants  were  the  great  Rabbi  Mair  and 
the  stern  Simon  ben  Yohai.  The  mild  Josua  op- 
posed the  projects  of  Akibah  and  during  his  life 
prevented  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion,38  but  the 
propaganda  went  on  through  the  tireless  energy  of 
Akibah. 

That  it  needed  no  common  energy  to  rouse  the 
men  of  Judea  to  another  struggle  with  Rome  is 
shown  by  the  Talmud  narrative.38     It  runs  thus: 


RABBI   AKIBAH  I/I 

"Rabbi  Akibah  once  came  to  a  town40  and  asked 
hospitality.  He  was  refused  churlishly  and  had  to 
sleep  in  the  fields  outside.  Now  Akibah,  when  he 
travelled,  always  had  with  him  a  lantern  and  a  cock, 
so  that  he  might  read  in  the  inns  by  the  lantern- 
light,  and  be  awakened  for  his  early  prayers  by  the 
cry  of  the  cock.  When  in  the  field  this  night  he 
lighted  his  lantern,  tethered  his  mule,  placed  the 
cock  in  another  place,  and  lay  down  to  rest.  While 
he  slept  the  wind  blew  down  the  lantern,  a  lynx 
killed  the  bird,  and  later  a  lion  came  and  killed  the 
mule.  The  Rabbi  woke  in  the  morning  and  saw  the 
wreck.  'Whatever  the  Merciful  hath  done  is  for 
the  best,'  was  his  only  comment.41 

"Now  during  the  night  a  band  of  marauding  sol- 
diers came  through  the  town  and  plundered  it.  The 
Rabbi  came  there  on  the  morrow  and  saw  death  and 
ruin  all  around.  The  few  survivors  lamented  their 
fate  bitterly. 

"  'I  told  you,'  said  Akibah,  'whatever  the  Merci- 
ful doth  is  for  the  best.  Yesterday  you  would  not 
receive  me  nor  listen  to  my  words :  you  thought  I 
slandered  the  Romans,  and  that  they  were  friends 
who  would  secure  you  peace  and  protection.  You 
see  now  what  Roman  friendship  is  and  the  folly  of 
your  belief.  Safety  can  only  come  to  the  people 
when  it  rises  in  its  strength  against  the  enemy  of  the 
Lord.'  "" 

This  story  describes  what  must  have  been  a  com- 
mon experience  of  the  reception  given  to  Akibah 
during  the  years  of  his  propaganda  of  revolution 
among  the  Jewish  community  of  Palestine. 


172      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Akibah  did  not  confine  his  efforts  to  his  native 
land.  With  the  wealth  of  Calba  at  his  disposal  he 
began  a  series  of  travels  through  Asia  Minor,  Baby- 
lonia, Arabia,  and  Africa,  to  incite  the  scattered 
branches  of  the  Jewish  race  in  his  propaganda,  and 
to  secure  allies  among  other  races  against  the  com- 
mon Roman  foe.  Though  Akibah  exerted  himself 
to  stir  up  the  enthusiasm  of  his  people  by  appeals 
to  their  religious  feelings,  he  had  no  scruple  in 
uniting  in  alliance  with  the  outside  heathen  for 
political  ends.  Neither  did  he  refuse  to  adopt  such 
of  the  customs  of  other  races  as  he  deemed  better 
than  those  of  Judea.  When  Jewish  zealots  of  the 
strict  observance  blamed  his  alliance  with  the  heathen 
Persians,  he  replied : 

'The  sun  and  moon  are  God's  creatures.  If  man 
be  unwise  enough  to  worship  them,  it  is  to  God  he 
will  answer.  God  will  not  destroy  nature's  works 
to  keep  man  from  sinning  by  their  abuse." 

His  teaching,  "If  a  man's  belief  be  right  and  one 
despise  him  for  it,  he  offends  God,  who  knoweth 
what  belief  is  right,"  is  certainly  unlike  what  one 
would  expect  from  a  strict  adherent  of  the  Jewish 
law.43  He  himself  certainly  did  not  despise  the 
heathens  nor  even  their  worship.  When  at  times 
Jews  came  to  tell  him  of  prodigies  and  cures  wrought 
by  idols,  he  only  answered  that  the  supposed  cures 
were  merely  accidental,  and  spoke  little  against 
idolatry  itself.44  He  recommended  three  customs 
of  the  Medes,  whom  he  had  visited  on  his  travels, 
to  his  own  countrymen.  One  was  to  sit  on  seats 
at  table  instead  of  on  the  ground ;  another,  to  kiss 


RABBI   AKIBAH  173 

only  on  the  hand  instead  of  on  the  lips,  and  a  third, 
that  of  holding  all  political  meetings  in  the  fields,  as 
walls  have  ears." 

A  nobler  teaching  was  that  which  he  gave  to  some 
Jews  of  his  time  who  held  that  the  truth  and  honesty 
required  by  the  Mosaic  Law  were  only  binding  in 
intercourse  with  their  own  countrymen. 

"It  is  equally  wrong  to  deceive  a  heathen  as  to 
deceive  a  Jew."  4B  He  also  laid  down  that  'Love 
thy  neighbour  as  thyself,'  is  the  root  and  completion 
of  the  Law." 

Akibah's  liberality  in  ethics,  however,  did  not  ex- 
tend to  the  Roman  rulers.  His  work  against  them  was 
indefatigable,  and  carried  out  in  a  manner  not  unlike 
that  of  the  Young  Italy  of  Mazzini  in  our  own  time. 
His  propaganda  began  under  the  reign  of  Trajan. 
That  emperor's  Eastern  campaigns  filled  Asia,  and 
especially  Syria,  with  the  soldiers  of  Rome  and  made 
the  work  of  preparation  for  a  Jewish  insurrection  all 
the  more  hard.  Still  it  went  on  and  with  marvel- 
lous secrecy.  An  outbreak  prematurely  made  in 
the  year  115  by  the  leaders  known  as  Julianus  and 
Pappus  was  put  down  with  such  ease  that  the  rulers 
of  Rome  regarded  the  allegiance  of  the  Jews  to  the 
Empire  as  secure.  On  one  occasion  an  army  of  Jews 
gathered  in  the  valley  of  Rimmon  to  begin  a  rebellion. 
Rabbi  Josua  came  to  dissuade  them  from  what  he 
deemed  madness.  It  had  been  rumored  that  the 
Roman  government  proposed  to  rebuild  the  Temple 
on  another  site,  which  in  the  mind  of  every  true  Jew 
would  be  a  sacrilege.  Josua  told  them  to  be  glad 
no  worse  evil  was  threatened.     A  stork  that  has  had 


1/4      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

its  head  in  the  mouth  of  a  lion  should  be  more  glad 
to  tell  the  story  than  anxious  to  avenge  the  insult, 
was  his  sharp  remark  which  did  for  the  time  avert 
the  insurrection.47 

The  accession  of  Hadrian  and  his  abandonment 
of  Trajan's  late  conquests  gave  promise  of  better 
times  to  the  Jews  under  Roman  dominion.  Hadrian 
showed  favor  to  some  Rabbis;  he  pardoned  Julianus 
and  Pappus,  and  he  began  to  rebuild  Jerusalem  as 
a  Roman  city  under  the  name  of  yElia  Capitolina. 
He  even  spoke  of  restoring  the  Temple  for  a  while, 
and  the  partisans  of  Rome  were  full  of  joy  at  the 
success  which  seemed  to  have  attended  their  policy 
of  submission.  Not  so  Akibah,  who  never  desisted 
from  his  revolutionary  schemes,  though  he  veiled 
them  so  carefully  as  to  deceive  the  watchful  Hadrian. 
The  latter  thought  he  had  secured  peace  by  his 
treaty  with  the  Parthians.  He  had  medals  struck 
with  the  inscription  "Tellus  Stabilita"  (the  world  is 
settled),  and  he  began  a  personal  tour  of  his  vast 
dominions  at  the  moment  when  Judea  was  preparing 
to  rise  again  in  arms.  Hadrian,  when  in  Palestine  in 
130,  saw  nothing  to  indicate  the  vast  plot  devised 
by  Akibah.  Rufus,  the  governor  of  Judea,  con- 
versed with  the  revolutionary  leader  in  friendly 
terms,  and  questioned  him  on  points  of  the  Jewish 
law.  He  could  not  understand  why  the  Jews, 
though  poor  themselves,  should  be  ready  to  aid  the 
unfortunate  among  themselves.  The  heathen  maxim 
was  that  no  mercy  should  be  shown  to  those  whom  the 
gods  have  cursed,  and  on  this  principle  the  Romans 
treated  the  poor  and  suffering  with  barbarous  cruelty. 


RABBI    AKIBAH  175 

"Think  you  not  it  an  offence  against  your  God  to 
relieve  such  as  He  hath  doomed  to  suffering?  "  asked 
Rufus. 

' '  No, ' '  replied  Akibah.  "  If  a  king  had  justly  de- 
prived his  son  of  food  for  a  time  by  way  of  punish- 
ment, and  if  another  found  the  prince  dying  of  hunger 
and  fed  him,  think  you  his  father  would  be  angry 
with  the  helper  of  his  son?  Even  so  will  God  deal 
with  those  who  minister  to  their  suffering  fellow- 
men  ;  for  all  men,  however  sinful,  are  children  of 
God."49 

The  interest  taken  by  the  Roman  governor  in 
Jewish  laws  was  shared  by  his  wife.  She  became 
acquainted  with  Akibah  at  her  husband's  house  and 
joined  in  the  intercourse  that  took  place  between 
them.  She  was  captivated  by  the  personal  beauty 
which  marked  Akibah 's  features  and  which  years 
before  had  won  him  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of 
Calba  Shebuah.  Akibah  himself  was  smitten  with 
the  charms  of  the  high-born  Roman  lady.  The  Tal- 
mud says  that  when  he  first  saw  her  he  wept  and 
then  laughed.  He  wept  that  so  fair  a  being  should 
be  in  heathen  darkness ;  he  laughed  because  he  fore- 
saw that  she  would  become  a  proselyte  and  his  own 
wife.49  The  wife  of  Rufus  studied  the  doctrines  of 
Judaism  and  finally  professed  herself  a  believer.60 
She  left  her  husband's  house  and  joined  her  aged 
lover,  who  formally  married  her. 

It  may  be  imagined  what  was  the  wrath  of  the 
Roman  noble  at  the  injury  thus  done  him,  alike  in 
family  and  personal  honor.  Akibah  was  searched 
for  diligently,  but  was  hidden  by  his  political  friends. 


176      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

The  time  for  revolution  was  at  hand  when  Aki- 
bah  carried  off  the  wife  of  Rufus.  The  suspicion  of 
the  authorities  had  been  aroused,  and  some  severe 
measures  were  adopted  to  cow  the  spirit  of  rebellion 
among  the  Jews.  The  sacred  site  of  the  Temple 
was  ordered  to  be  ploughed  up  and  sown  as  a  sign 
that  it  should  never  be  built  again.  Rabbi  Ishmael, 
a  close  friend  and  colleague  of  Akibah,  who  was  held 
in  the  highest  regard  by  the  people,  was  arrested 
and  executed  without  trial.61  He  and  Akibah  en- 
joyed the  common  title  of  "Fathers  of  Wisdom."  M 
Akibah  felt  the  death  of  Ishmael  keenly.  He  spoke 
in  impassioned  language  at  his  funeral  and  stirred 
up  the  hearts  of  the  people  against  Rome.  Within 
a  brief  time  Israel  was  in  arms  against  the  legions 
of  the  Roman  empire  again. 

It  did  not  begin,  however,  till  the  provident 
Akibah  had  found  a  leader  fit  to  lead  the  Hebrews 
to  battle  with  the  legions  of  Rome.  He  was,  with 
all  his  ability,  no  soldier  himself,  and  it  needed  a  sol- 
dier, above  all,  to  realize  his  dream  of  material  em- 
pire. Akibah  did  not  venture  to  put  himself  forward, 
like  Mohammed  in  later  years,  as  a  Heaven-sent 
prophet.  He  chose  rather  to  act  the  part  of  a  pre- 
cursor, as  John  the  Baptist  had  been  to  another  in 
past  time.  Akibah  was  famed  far  and  wide  for  his 
holiness  and  extraordinary  powers,  so  that  it  was  easy 
for  him  to  make  the  people  believe  that  he  was  the 
incorporation  of  the  prophet  Elijah,  who  according 
to  prophecy  was  to  precede  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah. The  expectation  of  a  Messiah  to  be  sent  by  the 
Almighty  to  change  the  condition  of  the  human  race 


RABBI   AKIBAH  1 77 

was  general  among  the  Jews  of  the  time.  Many 
looked  for  him  as  an  invincible  leader  who  would  go 
forth  in  the  power  of  the  supreme  Lord  to  make 
Israel  the  earthly  ruler  of  the  human  race.  Akibah 
used  this  faith  to  forward  the  political  object  to 
which  he  had  devoted  his  life,  and  to  precipitate  the 
rebellion  which  destroyed  the  separate  national  ex- 
istence of  the  Jewish  race.  A  false  Elijah  preceded 
a  false  Messiah. 

During  his  propaganda  among  the  Jewish  people, 
Akibah  had  met  a  young  man  in  whom  his  keen 
judgment  recognized  a  great  though  unknown  mili- 
tary genius.  This  unknown  was  said  to  come  from 
the  town  of  Cozibah,  but  his  origin  was  hid  in  obscur- 
ity. He  was  without  family,  and  strange  tales  were 
told  of  his  origin.68  A  popular  legend  made  him  the 
natural  son  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Hadrian  himself. 
It  was  said  that  his  birth  was  the  result  of  an  intrigue 
between  Hadrian  when  in  Syria  in  early  life  and  the 
wife  of  a  prince  of  Hebrew  race,  but  a  Moor  in  com- 
plexion.54 Be  this  as  it  may,  Akibah,  when  the 
Jewish  people  were  excited  to  madness  by  the  exe- 
cution of  Ishmael,  presented  this  young  man  to  them 
as  the  one  destined  by  Heaven  to  work  their  deliver- 
ance. When  his  name  and  origin  were  asked,  Akibah 
replied  that  his  name  was  Bar  Kochba,  the  son  of 
the  star,  the  "star"  that  should  come  forth  from 
Jacob  according  to  prophecy,  the  true  Messiah  come 
to  crush  the  enemies  of  the  Lord  and  of  His  people." 

The  people  accepted  the  words  of  Akibah  and  rose 
in  arms  under  this  new  leader.  His  success  for  a 
time  was  remarkable.     He  captured  fifty  towns ;  he 


1/8      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

defied  the  Roman  armies.  The  Romans  were  dis- 
couraged by  the  feats  of  this  unknown  warrior,  and 
a  superstitious  awe  grew  around  his  name  among 
them.  They  dared  not  meet  him  in  battle.  They 
shut  themselves  up  in  their  fortifications  and  even 
wished  to  abandon  Judea  as  the  provinces  beyond 
the  Euphrates  had  been  given  up  by  Hadrian  a  few 
years  earlier.66 

Hadrian  called  his  best  general,  Julius  Severus, 
from  Britain  with  a  veteran  army  to  suppress  the 
Jewish  rebellion.  Bar  Kochba  was  no  match  for 
these  foes.  Severus  drove  the  insurgents  from  post 
after  post  and  finally  shut  up  their  leader  with  the 
flower  of  his  forces  in  the  fortified  city  of  Bethar. 
There  he  held  out  against  all  attacks  for  two  years, 
until  a  Samaritan  betrayed  to  the  Romans  an  un- 
derground passage  to  the  heart  of  the  city.  The 
Hebrews  were  surprised  and  slaughtered  after  a 
desperate  struggle.  Bar  Kochba's  body,  it  is  said, 
was  found  crushed  in  the  coils  of  a  serpent  after  the 
battle.  The  revolution  was  quenched  in  Jewish 
blood.  He  so  audaciously  proclaimed  as  the  son 
of  the  star  had  proved  a  false  guide,  and  had  led 
Israel  not  to  glory,  but  to  temporal  ruin.  The  in- 
dignant populace  heaped  execration  on  his  memory. 
The  title  Bar  Kochba  was  changed  by  the  people  to 
another  derived  from  his  supposed  place  of  birth, 
and  at  the  same  time  descriptive  of  his  character. 
He  was  called  Bar  Kozibah,  or  son  of  lies.67 

Rabbi  Akibah  was  not  involved  in  the  destruction 
which  fell  on  the  Jewish  host  in  Bethar.  He  escaped 
to  Lydda  when  the  stronghold  of  Jewish  resistance 


RABBI   AKIBAH  1 79 

was  captured.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  lost  credit 
as  a  teacher  even  after  the  fall  of  him  whom  he  had 
proclaimed  the  Messiah.  At  Lydda,  in  company 
with  his  old  opponent,  Rabbi  Tarphon,  he  held  a 
council  of  doctors  of  the  law  to  decide  what  course 
should  be  followed  by  the  Jewish  people  in  the  days 
of  tribulation  which  had  fallen  on  them.  The  Ro- 
man authorities,  exasperated  at  the  stubborn  defence 
of  Bethar,  had  refused  all  toleration  to  the  professors 
of  Judaism.  To  practise  the  rites  of  the  Law  of 
Moses,  to  teach  it  publicly,  and  even  to  meet  in  any 
numbers  were  forbidden  to  the  Jews  of  Palestine 
under  pain  of  death.  The  council  at  Lydda  adopted 
the  advice  of  Akibah,  and  proclaimed  that  it  was 
lawful  to  dissemble  the  profession  of  faith  outwardly 
under  these  circumstances,  though  the  believers  were 
urged  to  retain  the  faith  in  their  hearts  and  teach  it 
to  their  children  in  secret.  The  old  saying  of  Ab- 
talion,  "and  ye  shall  live  by  the  laws,  but  ye  shall 
not  die  by  them,59  was  revived  and  adopted.  This 
decision  was  very  different  from  that  of  the  Macca- 
bees under  the  persecution  of  Antiochus,  but  it  was 
in  accordance  with  the  tenor  of  policy  of  Akibah's  life. 
After  the  council  he  hid  among  the  friends  who 
still  remained  faithful  to  him  and  for  some  time 
baffled  the  pursuit  of  the  Romans.  Though  the 
effect  of  the  great  Rabbi's  policy  and  teaching  had 
been  so  disastrous,  he  yet  retained  the  respect  of  the 
people  to  a  remarkable  extent.  In  the  ruin  that 
had  fallen  on  their  nation,  zealous  Jews  still  sought 
for  instruction  in  the  law  and  looked  to  Akibah  as 
their  most  trusted  teacher. 


l8o      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

The  Talmud  tells  the  story  of  his  closing  days  in 
a  way  which  leaves  no  doubt  of  this  fact.  Simon, 
a  former  pupil  of  Akibah,  and  son  of  a  man  high  in 
office  under  the  Roman  government,  it  is  told,  was 
so  anxious  to  continue  his  studies  that  he  sought 
out  Akibah  in  his  concealment  and  urged  him  to  re- 
new the  work  of  training  doctors  of  the  law.  The 
Rabbi  pleaded  the  danger  under  the  existing  laws. 

"My  son,"  the  Talmud  makes  him  say,  "as  the 
cow  is  more  ready  to  give  milk  to  her  calf  than  the 
calf  is  to  draw  that  milk,  so  am  I  more  anxious  to 
teach  than  thou  art  to  learn.     But  see  the  danger." 

"Ignorance  is  a  greater  danger,"  replied  Simon. 
"Rome  can  only  kill  the  body:  ignorance  kills  the 
soul.  Rome  kills  only  for  time:  ignorance  kills  for 
eternity."  69 

As  this  plea  had  no  effect,  the  enthusiastic  youth 
threatened  to  reveal  Akibah's  abode  to  his  father 
and  let  him  deliver  him  to  the  Romans  unless  he 
would  consent  to  instruct  him  in  the  proscribed  re- 
ligion. Akibah  yielded  at  last  and  again  gathered 
pupils  around  him.  He  was  warned  of  the  danger 
of  his  course  by  friends,  amongst  whom  were  the 
celebrated  Rabbi  Yosai  ben  Kisma  and  Pappus,  but 
his  fatalistic  philosophy  came  to  his  aid  and  he  con- 
tinued to  teach  regardless  of  the  advice  he  had 
already  given  at  Lydda.  Pappus,  who  found  him 
surrounded  by  pupils,  asked : 

"Rabbi,  dost  thou  not  know  that  if  thou  teach 
the  Law  thou  wilt  lose  thy  life?  " 

"Even  so,"  answered  Akibah,  "the  fox  once 
asked  the  little  fishes  to  leave  the  water,  where  they 


RABBI   AKIBAH  l8l 

were  in  danger  of  being  devoured  by  larger  fish,  and 
live  with  him  on  land,  and  the  fishes  told  him  it  was 
safer  to  take  risks  in  their  element  than  sure  death 
for  want  of  it.  Thus  may  I  say  to  thee,  Pappus, 
that  if  death  threaten  me  when  teaching  God's 
Word,  the  tree  of  life,  the  true  living  waters,  it  will 
surely  come  on  me  if  I  neglect  to  teach.  Neglect  of 
the  law  brings  everlasting  death;  Rome  can  only 
kill  the  body."  eo 

His  career  after  that  was  short  as  a  teacher,  but 
before  its  close  he  ordained  Simon  as  Rabbi  and 
desired  to  ordain  Mair,  another  pupil,  but  the  latter 
declined  on  the  ground  that  he  was  not  married. 
Simon,  protected  by  his  father's  position  under  the 
Roman  governor,  carried  on  the  work  of  teaching 
after  Akibah's  death  and  transmitted  the  traditions 
of  the  Rabbis  to  future  ages. 

The  Roman  governor  finally  discovered  Akibah's 
hiding-place,  and  made  him  prisoner.  The  con- 
tempt which  the  former  felt  for  the  rebel  against  the 
empire  was  intensified  by  the  hatred  he  had  towards 
the  man  who  had  drawn  away  his  own  wife  from  his 
household.  He  doomed  the  captive  to  death  by 
torture.  Akibah  knew  that  there  was  no  hope  of 
pity  from  the  exasperated  Rufus.  He  called  his 
fatalistic  theories  to  his  aid  and  faced  the  Roman 
fires  with  the  stoical  courage  of  an  Indian  warrior  at 
the  stake. 

His  skin  was  seared  slowly  with  hot  iron  combs, 
while  he  continued  to  pray  and  thank  Heaven  for  the 
privilege  of  dying  in  such  a  cause.  The  executioners 
then  pierced  various  parts  of  his  flesh  with  pointed 


1 82      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

rods.  Akibah  looked  on  his  disciples,  who  had  been 
brought  there  by  command  of  Rufus,  and  smiled. 
The  exasperated  Roman  asked  harshly  why  he  smiled 
under  pain. 

"One  whose  wish  is  gratified  must  be  happy," 
Akibah  is  quoted  as  saying.  "My  chief  wish  was 
ever  to  give  myself  to  God.  Hitherto  I  could  only 
give  my  works,  now  that  I  can  give  Him  my  life 
itself,  why  should  I  not  rejoice?  "  "' 

Rufus  ordered  the  executioners  to  finish  the  vic- 
tim's life,  and  Akibah  expired  with  the  cry,  "Hear, 
O,  Israel,  the  Lord  our  God,  the  Lord  is  one,"  on 
his  lips."  The  stoicism  with  which  he  met  his 
death,  and  the  patriotic  fervor  of  his  character,  have 
made  of  Akibah  a  national  hero  among  subsequent 
generations.  With  him  the  separate  political  ex- 
istence of  the  Jewish  people  came  to  an  end,  and 
patriotic  sympathy  has  enshrined  his  memory  in  the 
hearts  of  the  Jews.  The  calamities  that  befell  his 
nation  through  his  policy  are  forgotten  in  the  case 
of  Akibah  as  in  that  of  Hannibal.  His  political 
projects  were  a  failure.  He  failed  to  grasp  the  mis- 
sion of  the  Jewish  race  under  the  divine  dispensa- 
tion. It  was  to  be  the  messenger  bearing  revealed 
truth  to  the  other  children  of  man.  Akibah  con- 
ceived it  as  holding  revelation  for  its  own  benefit, 
and  in  virtue  of  it  as  lording  it  over  all  other  nations 
from  the  heights  of  Mount  Moriah. 

As  a  teacher  of  religion  and  morals  it  is  hard  to 
find  praise  for  one  who  proclaimed  a  false  Messiah 
to  his  people  to  attain  a  political  end,  and  who 
counselled  outward  denial  of  religious  belief  when 


RABBI   AKIBAH  I  83 

its  profession  involved  serious  danger.  Neverthe- 
less, as  a  scholar,  a  judge,  an  organizer,  and  patriotic 
Jew,  Akibah  holds  a  foremost  rank  among  the  recog- 
nized masters  in  Israel. 

"A  man's  sayings  are  his  true  monument,"  is  a 
rabbinical  proverb.63  We  shall  add  a  few  of  Aki- 
bah's  to  the  story  of  his  life. 

"It  is  sin  when  one  is  scorned  to  say  that  others 
ought  to  be  scorned,  or  when  one  is  abused  that 
others  should  be  abused  likewise."  64 

"Labor  is  honorable  to  man."  " 

"If  thou  needest,  do  any  work  and  excuse  not 
thyself  if  perchance  thou  art  a  priest  or  a  noble."  66 

"If  life  is  equally  at  stake,  first  save  thyself,  then 
look  for  thy  neighbor's  life,"  is  a  saying  quite  in 
keeping  with  Akibah's  own  practice.67 

"They  err  who  say,  I  will  sin  now  and  repent 
after.  The  Day  of  Atonement  brings  no  forgive- 
ness to  the  insincere,"  is  an  axiom  of  a  different 
nature.68 

"As  a  golden  vase  when  flawed  may  be  melted  to 
a  new  vessel,  so  the  sinner  may  repent  and  become 
a  new  man,"  embodies  his  theory  on  sin  and  its 
forgiveness.69 

On  family  life  his  precepts  are  equally  clear,  terse, 
and  beautiful. 

"God  is  with  the  married  who  are  faithful  to  one 
another."  " 

"He  who  keeps  his  daughter  long  unmarried  is  as 
though  he  showed  her  the  way  to  incontinence." 

"He  who  receiveth  alms  when  he  needs  them  not, 
will  need  them  before  he  dieth."  ™ 


184      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Other  of  Akibah's  maxims  have  been  already 
given,  so  these  will  suffice  as  characteristic  of  the 
great  Rabbi. 

Akibah  was  old  at  his  death.  The  Talmud,  with 
Eastern  exaggeration,  says,  a  hundred  and  twenty 
years,  but  this  means  little  more  than  he  died  full  of 
years  and  works." 

A  son  and  a  daughter  survived  him.  The  son, 
Josua,  was  himself  a  distinguished  doctor  of  the 
law.  Akibah's  daughter  was  married  to  Ben  Azzai, 
but  as  he  desired  to  devote  his  life  to  study  she 
voluntarily  separated  from  him.  The  talmudic 
writers  said  of  her,  "The  lamb  followeth  its  mother," 
that  is,  she  did  for  Ben  Azzai  what  her  mother, 
Rachel,  did  for  Akibah.74 


CHAPTER  VIII 

RABBI    MAIR 

THE  years  immediately  after  the  rebellion  of  Bar 
Kochba  were  the  darkest  in  Jewish  history. 
Hadrian  prohibited,  under  pain  of  death,  all  public 
exercise  of  Jewish  religion  or  even  the  teaching  of 
its  doctrines.  The  teachers  were,  many  of  them, 
executed  and  the  lately  flourishing  schools  were  de- 
stroyed. With  the  death  of  Akibah  and  Ishmael, 
the  "Wells  of  Wisdom  were  dried  up,"  in  the  lan- 
guage of  their  contemporaries.1  But  the  national 
spirit  survived  even  this  test.  Hadrian  died,  and  his 
successor,  Antoninus  Pius,  the  best  of  the  Roman 
caesars,  relaxed  the  edicts  of  persecution.  The 
schools  were  opened  again,  though  most  of  the  great 
Rabbis  had  perished. 

A  prominent  figure  in  the  new  generation  of 
Rabbis  was  Mair.2  His  character  is  enigmatical. 
The  Talmud  does  not  tell  of  his  origin  or  history 
except  in  disjointed  sentences.  It  even  hints  that 
he  was  a  descendant  of  Nero,  who,  according  to  a 
wild  legend,  had  escaped  death  at  the  time  of  his 
deposition,  and  became  a  proselyte  to  Judaism  sub- 
sequently.3 The  chief  interest  of  this  surmise  is  that 
it    indicates    that    in    features    and    character    Mair 

185 


1 86      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

showed  traces  of  a  non-Jewish  origin.  His  sayings 
and  doctrines,  too,  have  a  certain  Greek  flavor  which 
suggests  the  same  conclusion.  In  his  lectures  he 
compared  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  in  a  manner 
which  showed  his  familiar  acquaintance  with  both. 
His  methods  were  rather  those  of  a  Greek  sophist 
than  an  Oriental.  The  Rabbis  describe  his  many- 
sided  versatility  in  astonishment.  It  was  said  that 
when  he  discussed  a  question  he  would  bring  such 
strong  reasons  for  both  sides  that  it  was  impossible 
to  know  his  own  judgment.5  He  was  especially  fond 
of  parables,  and  "Great  Speaker  of  Parables"  was 
his  title  of  honor  in  the  Jewish  schools.  Yet  the 
few  specimens  of  his  skill  that  survive  have  a  Greek 
cast  in  their  imagery.  We  give  one  of  the  three 
preserved  in  the  Talmud,  out  of  three  hundred  with 
the  authorship  of  which  he  is  credited,  to  illustrate 
this  point.  Mair  was  elucidating  the  saying  of 
Ezekiel,  "The  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes  and 
the  teeth  of  their  children  are  on  edge."  This  is 
his  illustration : 

"A  lion  caught  a  fox  and  was  about  to  devour 
him,  when  the  fox  exclaimed  that  his  carcase  would 
be  but  a  mouthful,  and  that  if  the  lion  spared  him 
he  would  guide  him  to  a  man  who  would  furnish  a 
more  ample  meal.  The  lion  consented.  The  fox 
led  to  a  hunter  who  had  dug  a  pitfall  and  was  lying 
quietly  beyond  it.  The  lion  felt  some  awe  about 
attacking  a  human  being. 

"  'The  Lord  may  hear  that  man's  prayer,'  he  re- 
marked nervously. 

"  'Don't  fear,'  said  the  fox.     'It  is  wrong  to  kill 


RABBI    MAIR  1 87 

one  made  in  God's  image,  but,  too,  it  is  written, 
that  God  will  visit  the  sins  of  the  fathers  on  their 
children.  Thy  son  or  his  son  will  have  to  pay  the 
penalty  of  thy  sin,  not  thou.' 

"The  lion  took  courage  and  sprang  at  the  man, 
but  only  to  fall  helpless  in  the  pit. 

"  'Thou  art  justly  punished,'  cried  the  fox,  calmly 
looking  down. 

"  'Didst  thou  not  tell,'  growled  the  lion,  'that  it 
is  the  sons  that  pay  for  their  fathers'  sins? ' 

"  'I  did,  indeed,'  said  the  fox,  'and  don't  forget 
that  thy  father  and  grandfather  have  sinned  before 
thee  and  it  is  for  their  sins  thou  dost  suffer  now.' 

Mair  supported  himself  by  various  kinds  of  literary 
work.7  He  wrote  the  sacred  scrolls  for  the  syna- 
gogues, and  letters  for  the  people.  He  also  wrote 
verses  for  public  feasts.8  He  spent  his  earnings 
freely,  and  supported  several  needy  students ;  but 
his  own  family  were  but  scanty  sharers  in  his  liberal- 
ity.    He  justified  himself  in  his  mocking  fashion. 

"If  my  children  turn  out  good  the  Lord  will 
provide  for  them.  David  says  in  the  Psalms,  'I 
was  young  and  I  am  old,  yet  I  have  not  seen  the 
righteous  forsaken  nor  his  seed  needing  bread.'  If 
my  children  are  not  good,  they  deserve  nothing, 
and  it  would  be  helping  the  enemies  of  the  Lord  if  I 
left  them  wealth."  9 

It  is  little  wonder  that  Mair  was  credited  with 
finding  reasons  for  any  course  after  this  specimen. 
The  serious  Rabbis  told  with  indignation  how  Mair 
could  give  a  hundred  and  fifty  reasons  to  prove  an 
object  legally  clean  and  as  many  more  to  show  it 


1 88      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

utterly  unclean.10  His  was  the  spirit  of  Lucian 
under  the  garb  of  a  Rabbi.  The  other  Rabbis 
looked  askance  at  the  erratic  flights  of  their  brilliant 
colleague.  Mair  had  refused  ordination  at  the  hands 
of  Akibah,  but  after  his  marriage  he  asked  it  from 
Rabbi  Judah  ben  Baba.11  Judah  and  the  father  of 
Mair's  wife  were  among  the  Rabbis  who  lost  their 
lives  during  the  persecution  of  Hadrian.  There  is 
no  evidence  that  Mair  took  any  active  part  in  the 
rebellion,  and  the  tenor  of  his  character  makes  it  un- 
likely. Some  sneers  recorded  in  the  Talmud  12  would 
imply  that  he  was  not  popular  with  the  Rabbis  of 
the  patriot  faction.  However,  none  contested  his 
intellectual  ability,  or  cared  to  enter  the  arena  of 
debate  with  the  clever  sophist.13  He  was  called  to 
the  Sanhedrin  when  that  body  was  again  assembled 
under  the  presidency  of  Simon,  the  son  of  the  sec- 
ond, Gamaliel.  He  was  made  Haliam  or  reader,  the 
third  office  in  that  body,  his  friend  Rabbi  Nathan 
being  presiding  judge.  With  the  president  these 
three  formed  a  committee  which  was  practically 
supreme  in  the  Council.  Simon,  amid  the  mis- 
fortunes of  his  people,  retained  an  exaggerated  idea 
of  the  importance  of  his  office.  He  had  neither  the 
learning  nor  the  generous  temper  of  his  father,  and 
his  jealous  maintenance  of  his  official  dignity  excited 
many  quarrels  in  the  Sanhedrin. 

Custom  required  the  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  to 
rise  and  remain  standing  when  the  president,  the 
judge,  or  the  reader  entered  the  Assembly.  They 
did  not  resume  their  seats  till  motioned  to  do  so  by 
the  president  after  the  three  superiors  were  seated.14 


RABBI    MAIR  1 89 

Simon,  in  the  absence  of  Mair  and  Nathan,  issued 
an  order  that  the  Assembly  should  only  rise  as  a 
body  on  his  own  entrance.  At  the  entrance  of  the 
judge  only  the  first  row  of  members  were  to  rise, 
and  on  the  entrance  of  the  reader  the  second  row. 
Rabbis  Nathan  and  Mair  were  indignant  at  this 
change  and  revenged  themselves  at  a  subsequent 
meeting  by  proposing  a  number  of  difficult  ques- 
tions. Their  object  was  to  puzzle  Simon  and  pos- 
sibly show  his  unfitness  for  the  office  he  held ;  but 
it  failed.  Simon  had  got  information  of  the  scheme, 
and  not  only  worsted  his  assailants  in  debate,  but 
obtained  their  deposition  from  office  on  the  ground 
of  conspiracy  against  himself. 

Mair  was  not  the  man  to  yield  on  such  a  point. 
In  the  session  he  plied  the  president  with  so  many 
questions  that  the  latter  was  bewildered  and  offered 
to  reinstate  the  judge  and  reader  if  they  would  apolo- 
gize for  their  conduct.  Nathan  consented  :  Mair  re- 
fused.    He  was  threatened  with  excommunication. 

"I  shall  submit  readily,"  he  said,  "if  the  presi- 
dent will  explain  when  and  how  excommunication 
may  justly  be  incurred."  15 

The  excommunication  was  not  attempted.  This 
episode  gives  a  noteworthy  idea  of  the  workings  of 
the  venerable  Assembly  seventeen  hundred  years  ago. 

Mair  had  a  large  fund  of  intellectual  pride,  and 
his  dislike  was  intense  for  those  who  scorned  studies 
and  gave  themselves  up  to  sensual  pleasures.  This 
class  was  a  large  one  in  Palestine  at  the  time,  and 
receives  frequent  reprobation  through  the  Talmud.'" 
The  materialists  scoffed  at  the  pains  taken  by  the 


190      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

scholars  to  store  their  minds  with  decisions  and  rules 
of  the  law.  Their  favorite  theory  was  that  the  true 
way  of  fulfilling  the  law  was  to  enrich  the  people,17 
a  maxim  not  unknown  in  our  own  days.  The 
austere  among  the  Rabbis  lavished  condemnation 
on  these  doctrines  and  their  maintainers. 

"One  might  as  well  give  his  daughter  to  a  lion  in 
marriage  as  to  a  Man  of  Earth,"  was  one  maxim. 

"He  who  leaves  a  Man  of  Earth  in  his  house 
asleep  and  returns  to  find  him  awake  may  be  sure 
that  pollution  has  been  abroad  in  that  house,"  was 
another  saying.18 

Mair  was  strict  even  to  harshness  in  speaking  of 
this  class  of  men.  Study,  for  him,  was  the  first  duty 
and  privilege  of  man. 

"Learn  the  ways  of  the  Lord  with  thy  whole  heart 
and  with  thy  whole  soul.  Watch  at  the  gate  of  the 
law.  Keep  the  law  in  thy  heart.  Let  the  fear  of 
the  Lord  be  ever  before  thine  eyes  and  keep  thy 
tongue  from  evil  words.  Cleanse  and  make  pure 
thyself  that  thou  mayest  stand  without  sin  or  guilt 
before  the  Lord,  and  He  will  be  with  thee  wherever 
thou  art."10 

It  must  be  owned  that  there  is  a  tincture  of  the 
pride  of  intellect  in  Mair's  strictures  on  the  Men  of 
Earth, — the  unlettered.  In  later  days,  when  domes- 
tic sorrow  had  touched  himself,  his  utterances  took  a 
milder  form  and  breathed  a  more  charitable  spirit. 
A  parable  told  by  him  after  the  death  of  his  sons 
may  illustrate  this  change  : 

"A  king  had  a  twin  brother  like  to  himself  in  face. 
This  brother  left  his  home  and  became  a  robber  who 


RABBI    MAIR  I9I 

wasted  the  country.  The  king,  who  knew  not  that 
the  robber  was  his  brother,  ordered  his  soldiers  to 
capture  and  hang  him.  It  was  done,  and  the  rob- 
ber's body  was  hung  on  high  as  a  warning  to  all  who 
might  be  tempted  to  follow  unrighteousness. 

"Now  the  common  people,  who  knew  the  face  of 
the  king,  but  did  not  know  the  robber,  thought  the 
body  was  that  of  the  king.  They  said  to  one  an- 
other, 'The  king  is  hanged!  the  king  is  hanged!' 
Then  the  king  heard,  and  he  bade  his  servants  take 
down  the  body  of  his  brother  and  bury  it  from  the 
sight  of  men.  Even  so  God  finds  no  glory  in  the 
shame  of  His  erring  children,  nor  can  Israel  have 
honor  in  the  disgrace  of  his  twin  brother."  20 

The  family  life  of  Rabbi  Mair  is  told  in  great  de- 
tail by  the  rabbinical  writers.  It  throws  much  light 
on  the  social  conditions  of  life  in  Palestine  in  the 
Roman  days  and  on  the  position  then  held  by  wo- 
man in  society  among  the  Jews.  Beruriah,  his  wife, 
was  the  child  of  a  distinguished  Rabbi  who  was  one 
of  the  ten  Rabbis  slain  by  Hadrian.21 

She  was  to  Mair  what  Rachel  was  to  Akibah,  and 
more;  for  she  exercised  a  marked  influence  in  the 
formation  of  his  character.  She  was  clever  as  well 
as  fair,  and  her  charity  to  all  was  boundless.  Her 
husband's  fiery  temper  she  gradually  modified  by 
gentleness,  while  she  was  ever  ready  to  sacrifice  her 
own  desires  to  his  advancement,  and  to  stimulate  his 
mind  by  gentle  suggestion.  When  Mair  quoted  in  hot 
wrath  the  text  from  the  Psalm  which  says,  "Let  sin- 
ners perish  from  the  land,"  Beruriah  corrected  his  zeal. 

"It   is  written,"   she  said,   "  'Let  sin  (^hataim) 


I92       JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

perish,  not  sinners'  i^hoteim).  Rather  let  us  pray 
that  the  sinners  may  be  converted  from  their  ways 
and  then  sin  and  sinners  shall  pass  away."  2a 

Beruriah  frequently  showed  her  own  skill  in  con- 
troversy with  unbelievers."  She  advised  as  to  the 
best  methods  of  study,  and  her  judgment  on  points 
of  the  law  were  often  ratified  by  the  authority  of 
the  Rabbis  themselves.24  Her  wit  was  as  quick  as 
her  husband's.  She  discussed  philosophy  with  him 
as  well  as  the  law,  and  few  cared  to  enter  on  a  con- 
test with  the  witty  Beruriah.  Once  a  famous  Rabbi, 
Yosai  of  Galilee,  met  her  on  the  road  and  asked  in 
pompous  style: 

'What  is  the  road  that  people  dwelling  around 
here  take  to  go  to  Lydda?  " 

"Man  of  Galilee,"  answered  Beruriah,  "don't  you 
know  the  saying,  'Speak  not  more  than  necessary  to 
a  woman  '  ?  You  could  have  asked,  What  is  the 
road  to  Lydda?  " 

Poor  Yosai  slunk  away  discomfited  at  this  palpable 
hit.26 

A  great  domestic  misfortune  which  befell  Beruriah 
brought  out  the  nobler  side  of  her  character  in  a 
very  touching  way.  Her  two  sons,  beautiful  boys, 
were  accidentally  drowned  in  a  cistern  while  play- 
ing. It  was  a  Sabbath  Day  and  the  father  was 
teaching  in  the  school.  Beruriah  in  her  grief  would 
not  interrupt  his  duties.  She  covered  the  bodies  of 
her  children  with  a  sheet  on  the  bed  and  awaited 
Mair's  return  till  sunset.  His  first  inquiry  was 
where  the  children  were.  His  wife  told  him  they 
had  gone  out  to  the  College,  and  then  brought  the 


RABBI    MAIR  193 

golden  goblet  of  the  feast  day,  filled  it  with  wine, 
and  asked  him  to  repeat  the  grace  for  the  close  of 
the  Sabbath  Day.  Mair  complied,  and  intoned  the 
blessing  with  a  cheerful  heart.  He  then  asked  again 
where  the  children  were. 

"They  are  in  the  house,  not  far  away,"  was  the 
wife's  answer.  "Eat,  dear,  the  Sabbath  meal  must 
not  wait." 

Rabbi  Mair  sat  down  and  made  his  Sabbath  meal. 
He  repeated  the  grace  at  the  end  with  joy,  for  he 
felt  thoroughly  blessed  in  his  wife  and  children  at 
that  moment.     Beruriah  then  spoke. 

' '  Master, ' '  said  she,  ' '  may  I  ask  thee  a  question  ? ' 

"Ask,"  he  said  cheerfully. 

"Some  time  ago  one  gave  me  a  treasure  which  he 
now  asks  back.     Shall  I  return  it  ?  " 

"Dost  thou  ask  such  a  question?"  sharply  an- 
swered Mair. 

"But,"  Beruriah  urged,  "I  have  grown  to  love 
this  treasure,  and  I  am  loath  to  part  with  it." 

"Things  entrusted  to  us  are  sacred,"  said  the 
Rabbi.  "They  must  be  returned  when  demanded. 
Hesitate  not,  lest  thou  sin  against  the  Lord." 

"Must  I  not  repine  against  him  who  gave  the 
treasure?"  she  asked. 

"Certainly  not,"  replied  the  Rabbi. 

"Come,  then,  my  lord,  and  I  will  show  the  treasure 
to  thee." 

She  led  him  to  the  room  and,  removing  the  sheet 
from  the  bodies  of  her  children,  said : 

"See  the  treasure  that  He  who  gave  hath  de- 
manded back." 

»3 


194      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Mair  was  stricken  speechless  at  the  sight.  His 
frame  shook  for  some  moments  with  convulsions. 
Then  tears  came  and  he  cried  aloud : 

"My  sons,  my  sons,  I  was  your  father  and  your 
teacher,  but  you  are  now  my  masters  in  the 
law." 

Then  Beruriah's  tears  broke  out  and  she,  too, 
wept.  But  after  a  brief  space  she  took  her  hus- 
band's hand  and  whispered: 

"Remember,  my  beloved,  that  the  treasure  must 
be  returned." 

Mair  grew  strong  from  her  resolution.  He  arose 
and  said : 

'The  Lord  hath  given  them  to  us,  the  Lord  hath 
taken  them  away  ;  blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord." 

Again  and  again  he  repeated  the  words  and  he 
grew  composed,  at  least  outwardly,  but  his  soul  was 
sad  and  his  heart  bleeding  for  many  days." 

A  tale  of  the  rescue  of  his  sister-in-law,  though 
embellished  with  legend,  may  have  a  foundation  in 
fact.  After  the  defeat  of  Bar  Kochba,  the  sister  of 
Beruriah,  a  beautiful  girl,  was  carried  away  to  sla- 
very. It  was  learned  after  many  days  that  she  had 
been  carried  to  Rome  and  sold  to  the  keeper  of  a 
house  of  ill-fame.  Beruriah  urged  her  husband  to 
attempt  her  rescue.  Mair  at  first  demurred.  He 
feared  the  task  and  in  his  pride  he  dreaded  the  dis- 
grace that  would  attach  to  himself  if  he  should  bring 
a  fallen  woman  to  his  house.  Beruriah  maintained 
her  faith  in  her  sister's  constancy,  and  pledged  her 
word  that  she  would  forfeit  life  rather  than  virtue. 
Mair  yielded. 


RABBI    MAIR  1 95 

'If  she  remain  pure,"  he  said,  "it  is  by  miracle, 
and  a  miracle  may  be  wrought  for  her  deliverance." 

He  journeyed  to  Rome,  according  to  the  legend, 
dressed  as  a  wealthy  Roman,  and  found  the  house 
where  the  girl  was  kept. 

'Thou  hast  in  this  house  a  comely  Hebrew 
maiden,  I  am  told,"  he  said  to  the  owner,  giving 
him  at  the  same  time  several  pieces  of  gold. 

"I  have,  my  lord,"  the  man  replied.  "She  is 
very  beautiful,  but  no  man  hath  as  yet  gained  her 
favor. 

"Let  me  see  her,"  said  Mair,  scarcely  able  to  con- 
ceal his  joy. 

The  man  led  the  Rabbi  into  the  room  where  the 
maiden  was  kept,  and  left  them. 

Rabbi  Mair  beheld  the  beautiful  and  weeping 
daughter  of  Palestine,  seated  upon  a  low  divan,  her 
head  turned  toward  the  window,  gazing  upon  the 
blue  horizon,  far  beyond  the  green  meadows  and 
hills,  in  longing  for  the  land  of  her  fathers  and  those 
she  loved. 

He  approached  her.  When  she  saw  him,  she 
quickly  arose  and  asked  his  errand.  He  told  her 
that  he  had  come  to  rescue  her.  Misfortune  had 
made  her  incredulous;  she  was  afraid  of  men  under 
any  guise.  But  when  he  told  her  who  he  was  she 
fell  upon  her  knees  and  thanked  God. 

Rabbi  Mair  then  told  the  keeper  that  he  desired 
to  take  away  the  maiden,  offering  him  a  large  sum 
of  money.     But  the  keeper  hesitated. 

"When  this  is  found  out  it  will  cost  my  head," 
he  said. 


I96      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"Fear  not,"  said  the  Rabbi,  "when  danger  threat- 
ens thee,  say,  '  Mair's  God,  help  me!  '  and  thou 
shalt  be  safe." 

Still  the  man  hesitated. 

"Convince  me  that  what  thou  sayest  is  the  truth," 
he  said. 

"Behold,"  said  the  Rabbi,  and  he  approached  a 
number  of  savage  watch-dogs  at  the  gate.  He 
uttered  a  mystic  word,  and  the  dogs  cringed  at  his 
feet. 

Convinced  that  the  Rabbi  spoke  truth,  the  man 
let  the  maiden  go  for  the  price  offered.  When  the 
two  had  departed  he  felt  afraid  and  raised  an  alarm, 
saying  that  a  Hebrew  had  come  and  abducted  the 
maiden,  and  he  gave  a  detailed  description  of  the 
pseudo-Roman. 

Rabbi  Mair  had  meanwhile  taken  the  maiden  to  a 
safe  hiding-place,  and  then  made  his  escape  from  the 
city  alone.  The  Talmud  tells  that  the  keeper  was 
given  an  opportunity  to  test  the  cabalistic  formula 
of  Rabbi  Mair,  with  safety  to  his  life. 

Watch  was  set  for  the  Jewish  abductor  on  the 
roads.  A  party  of  the  watchers  were  eating  in  an 
inn  some  miles  from  the  city,  when  a  dignified  Ro- 
man entered  and  sat  down  to  eat.  The  guards 
thought  he  resembled  the  description  given  them  of 
the  unknown.  One  of  them  said,  it  must  be  he. 
Another,  that  no  Jew  could  carry  himself  so  proudly. 
As  a  test  they  resolved  to  ask  him  to  eat. 

"Good  sir,"  said  their  leader,  "pray  join  us  in 
this  dish  of  swine's  flesh,  for  it  is  good." 

"I  am  not  hungry,"  said  the  supposed  Roman, 


RABBI    MAIR  197 

"but  I  cannot  refuse  your  kind  invitation,  so  I  will 
taste  your  fare,  though  I  care  not  to  dine." 

He  dipped  a  finger  in  the  gravy,  conveyed  another 
finger  to  his  lips,  and,  saluting,  left  in  haste.  The 
soldiers  were  deceived  and  believed  he  could  not  be 
the  man  they  sought.  No  Hebrew  would  even 
taste  the  flesh  of  swine." 

The  Talmud  has  other  stories  illustrating  the 
Rabbi's  ready  wit,  and  one  or  two  may  be  given  as 
examples. 

While  travelling,  Rabbi  Mair  came  to  an  inn.  It 
had  a  bad  reputation,  as  the  host  was  held  to  be 
leagued  with  robbers,  but  there  was  no  other  resting- 
place  near.  When  Mair  took  out  his  purse  to  pay 
for  his  lodging,  he  noticed  the  look  of  greed  that 
came  over  the  host's  face. 

"My  friend  Ki  Tobh  (for  it  is  good)  will  soon 
come  here  after  me,"  he  quietly  remarked,  and 
then  went  to  his  room. 

He  rose  at  dawn  and,  as  he  was  leaving,  the  host 
met  him  and  asked  : 

' '  Hath  thy  friend  come  ? ' ' 

"He  hath,"  replied  Mair. 
Where  is  he  ?  " 

"There,"  said  the  Rabbi,  pointing  to  the  sun. 

"What  dost  thou  mean?"  asked  the  puzzled  inn- 
keeper. 

'That  I  saw  thine  intention  last  night,"  was  the 
reply.  "Night  is  for  deeds  of  darkness  and  sin  such 
as  were  in  thy  mind;  but  daylight  is  the  traveller's 
friend.  Ki  Tobh  is  its  name  by  Holy  Writ;  for 
'The  Lord  saw  light  that  it  was  good,  and  He  called 


198      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

it  day.'  Had  not  I  told  thee  I  expected  a  friend 
thou  wouldst  have  slain  me  as  thou  and  thine  evil 
comrades  have  slain  many  other  travellers  who 
sought  thy  shelter."26  And  Rabbi  Mair  went  on 
his  way. 

Advice  for  travellers  was  a  favorite  subject  of 
Mair's.  He  left  numerous  wise  maxims  on  this 
subject. 

"When  thou  art  at  Rome  do  as  the  Romans  do," 

9fi 

was  one. 

"Travellers  should  go  in  threes,"  was  another, 
with  the  gloss,  "A  lone  traveller  is  like  to  be  mur- 
dered ;  two  are  likely  to  quarrel ;  but  three  together 
will  always  make  their  way  in  peace. 

The  nicknames  so  commonly  applied  in  the  East 
he  considered  valuable  indications  of  character.  If 
they  had  reference  to  anything  connected  with  good 
in  Scripture  lore,  the  bearers  were  sure  of  Mair's 
confidence;  if  to  evil,  he  distrusted  as  strongly. 
"The  voice  of  the  people  is  the  voice  of  God,"  was 
his  apology  for  this  theory,  which  was  not  generally 
shared  by  other  Rabbis. 

Once,  the  Talmud  tells,  Rabbi  Mair,  Rabbi  Juda, 
and  Rabbi  Yosai  travelled  together.  They  came  late 
to  a  certain  town  where  a  man  offered  them  hospi- 
tality for  the  night.  Now  this  man  was  known  as 
Ki  Dor.  As  it  chances,  these  two  words  are  at  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence  in  Holy  Writ  speaking  of  a 
perverse  generation.  Juda  and  Yosai  paid  no  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  man's  name.  They  accepted 
his  offer  and  gave  him  their  purses  for  safe  keeping, 
but  Rabbi  Mair  would  not  enter  the  house. 


RABBI    MAIR  )99 

'I  trust  not  that  man,"  he  said,  "for  evil  is  at- 
tached to  his  name."  ai 

So  he  went  away  and  buried  his  money  in  a  grave- 
yard, and  then  he  went  and  ate  and  slept.  While 
he  slept  he  dreamed  that  he  was  warned  to  remove 
his  money  from  its  hiding-place.  He  interpreted 
his  dream  that  his  friends  were  in  danger  of  loss,  and 
in  the  morning  he  went  to  them  and  told  his  dream 
and  its  meaning.  Juda  and  Yosai  laughed  and  told 
him  sunset  dreams  were  idle,  as  a  sly  hint  that  his 
late  supper  was  accountable  for  the  supposed  warn- 
ing." So  Rabbi  Mair  went  about  his  business  as  a 
public  writer;  but  he  watched  Ki  Dor  all  day." 

Rabbi  Juda  and  Rabbi  Yosai  rested  a  day  in  Ki 
Dor's  house,  but  when  they  were  leaving  and  asked 
the  return  of  their  money,  Ki  Dor  denied  having 
had  any  money  of  them.  They  sought  Rabbi  Mair 
and  told  him,  and  Mair  asked: 

"Why  did  you  not  heed  my  warning  concerning 
his  name?  " 

"Why  didst  thou  not  tell  us  plainly?"  they  said. 

"I  had  only  suspicion  myself,  so  I  could  not  speak 
as  one  certain,"  was  Mair's  answer. 

As  they  spoke  they  were  before  a  wine  shop,  and 
lo,  Ki  Dor  came  up.  The  Rabbis  seized  him  and 
pulled  him  into  the  house.  And  Ki  Dor  was  afeared  ; 
for  he  thought  they  meant  to  kill  him.  But  they 
bade  him  sit  down  and  drink  wine  with  them,  and 
they  made  as  if  they  had  all  been  drunken,  and  had 
forgotten  their  money  completely.  Then  Ki  Dor 
felt  glad ;  he  had  robbed  the  great  Rabbis  of  their 
money,  and  now  he  was  drinking  at  their  cost  besides. 


200      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

He  loved  wine  and  would  drink  much  when  others 
paid  for  it.  So  he  now  drank  till  his  head  sank  on 
the  table.  Now  Ki  Dor  was  not  only  a  thief,  but 
he  was  a  sloven  in  his  ways.  His  beard  was  smeared 
with  the  remains  of  the  dinner  he  had  eaten  when  he 
met  the  Rabbis,  and  they  noted  that  his  food  had 
been  lentils.  So  while  Mair  watched  the  drunken 
man,  Judah  and  Josai  went  to  Ki  Dor's  house  and 
told  his  wife  that  her  husband  had  sent  them  for  the 
money  he  had  given  her  the  night  before. 

"What  word  or  token  hath  he  sent? "  she  asked. 

"The  token  is  that  he  had  lentils  for  his  meal," 
was  the  answer,  and  the  woman  believed  them  and 
gave  the  stolen  money  back.  They  went  in  haste 
away. 

When  Ki  Dor  awoke  he  went  home  and  looked 
for  the  money  in  vain.  He  questioned  his  wife  and 
she  told  him  how  two  men  had  brought  the  token 
from  him  and  carried  off  the  money.  Then  Ki  Dor 
was  so  wroth  that  he  slew  his  wife. 

The  moral  drawn  by  the  Talmud  from  this  tale  is 
an  admirable  example  of  the  spirit  of  hair-splitting 
prevalent  in  the  rabbinical  schools.  "Therefore," 
it  sagely  rules,  "no  one  should  leave  table  without 
washing  face  and  hands  after  eating."  34  It  would 
be  hard  to  find  a  more  characteristic  example  of 
the  spirit  which  would  "tithe  mint  and  cummin  and 
aniseed,"  and  leave  unnoticed  the  weighty  things 
of  the  law, — mercy  and  justice  and  truth. 

These  tales  show  that  in  private  life  relations  of  in- 
timacy existed  between  Mair  and  his  brother  Rabbis 
of  other  schools.     Other  statements  indicate  that  his 


RABBI    MAIR  201 

public  work  as  teacher  of  the  law  was  troubled 
sorely  by  the  jealousies  prevailing  among  the  stu- 
dents of  his  time.  The  party  feelings  of  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  were  still  bitter  after  the  death 
of  Bar  Kochba,  and  Mair  as  a  moderate  in  politics 
was  subjected  to  unworthy  persecution  by  some 
of  his  own  disciples.  An  attempt  was  made  to  blast 
his  character.  A  woman  one  day  was  hired  to 
enter  his  school  while  his  disciples  were  gathered 
together. 

"Rabbi,"  she  said,  "one  of  you  here  has  seduced 
me  under  promise.     I  demand  my  right."  " 

The  law  of  the  Rabbis  on  seduction  is  worth  re- 
cording. If  a  man  were  found  alone  in  a  room  with 
an  unmarried  woman  it  was  regarded  as  legal  evi- 
dence of  seduction.  Such  constituted  marriage  in 
the  eyes  of  the  law  if  demanded  by  the  woman. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  a  man  was  found  alone  in  a 
room  with  the  wife  of  another,  it  was  legal  evidence 
of  adultery  against  them.  It  brought  the  woman's 
reputation  into  doubt  and  warranted  her  husband 
to  divorce  her  without  compensation.36 

The  manner  in  which  the  woman's  claim  was  put 
forward  was  evidently  aimed  to  compromise  the 
master,  who  was  included  with  his  disciples  in  the 
term  "one  of  you."  Mair  rose  up  and  calmly  gave 
her  a  legal  bill  of  divorce.  All  his  disciples  followed 
the  master's  example,  and  the  deceit  of  the  com- 
plainant was  made  manifest.  Mair's  character  re- 
mained untouched  by  evil  tongues. 

The  hostility  against  him,  however,  found  a 
more  dastardly  means  of  attack  on  his  honor.     It 


202      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

resembles  closely  the  plot  told  in  Cymbelinc,  for 
which,  indeed,  it  may  have  furnished  the  hint. 
One  day  the  school  disputed  and  the  debate  was 
whether  man  was  naturally  more  moral  than  woman 
or  not.  The  champions  of  female  morality  declared 
that  their  master's  wife  was  the  superior  morally  of 
any  man  living.  An  insolent  student  maintained 
that  any  woman  was  ready  to  yield  if  approached 
on  her  weak  side. 

"Dost  thou  speak  of  Beruriah?'  asked  Mair 
quickly. 

"Even  of  thy  Beruriah,"  answered  the  student 
with  insolence. 

"Try  thy  skill,"  said  Mair  indignantly,  and  he 
left  the  room  in  hot  wrath." 

The  audacious  libertine  caught  at  the  chance 
rashly  given  him  by  Mair's  word.  He  went  straight 
to  the  house  where  Beruriah  was  engaged  in  her 
daily  tasks  among  her  maids  and  female  pupils 
whom  she  instructed  in  the  law.  She  knew  the 
visitor  as  a  member  of  her  husband's  college;  she 
greeted  him  kindly  and  asked  the  purpose  of  his 
call. 

"I  have  a  message  to  thee  from  thy  husband,  my 
master,"  he  said. 

"Speak  it,"  said  Beruriah. 

"Nay,  learned  lady,  it  is  for  thy  private  ear  alone; 
so,  pray,  send  out  thy  maids." 

With  all  her  knowledge  Beruriah  forgot  the  warn- 
ing of  the  law  and  sent  out  the  maidens.  The 
visitor  then  told  her,  saying,  "Thy  husband  hath 
given  thee  to  me." 


RABBI    MAIR  203 

The  indignant  wife  bade  him  begone  and  went  to 
call  for  help,  but  the  mocking  libertine  restrained 
her. 

"It  is  too  late  now  to  save  thy  character,"  he 
said.  "Thou  and  I  are  alone  in  this  room.  Thy 
name  as  a  faithful  wife  is  ruined.  Be  mine  and  I 
will  take  thee  away  from  this  place." 

Beruriah  again  spurned  his  offer  and  the  would-be 
seducer  left.  He  revenged  himself  by  boasting  of 
his  success  which  seemed  proved  by  the  private  in- 
terview so  treacherously  obtained. 

Both  husband  and  wife  felt  acutely  the  weight  of 
the  disgrace  which  had  fallen  on  them.  Beruriah, 
like  the  Roman  Lucretia,  took  her  own  life  in  de- 
spair. Rabbi  Mair  closed  his  school  and  left  his 
native  land  forever. 

He  travelled  through  many  lands  seeking  peace 
or,  at  least,  distraction  of  thought  for  his  harassed 
soul.  Babylonia,  Cappadocia,  the  yEgean  coast  were 
visited  in  succession  by  the  sad-hearted  traveller.39 

"Look  not  to  the  cask,  but  to  what  is  in  it;  for 
there  be  new  casks  which  hold  rare  old  wine,  and 
others  that  are  old  and  yet  have  not  even  new  wine 
within,"  was  his  bitter  remark  as  he  left  his  native 
land.3' 

He  finally  settled  in  Sardes  in  Asia  Minor,  where 
he  resumed  his  profession  as  a  teacher.  Large 
crowds  came  to  his  lectures.40  Gradually  he  re- 
covered his  peace  of  mind,  and  the  trials  he  had 
suffered  softened  his  original  harshness.  His  later 
sayings  are  full  of  mild  and  humble  wisdom,  very 
different  from  the  pride  of  earlier  days. 


204      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"Who  is  truly  rich,  but  he  who  is  content  with 
his  fortune."  41 

"Repentance  is  great,  for  when  one  man  repents 
all  human  nature  is  forgiven."  42 

"Humble  thyself  before  every  man."  43 

This  last  precept  he  urged  on  his  disciples  ear- 
nestly and  acted  on  it  in  his  own  later  practice. 

"Man  comes  into  the  world  with  closed  hands,  as 
though  claiming  ownership  of  everything,  but  he 
leaves  with  hands  open  and  limp,  as  though  to  show 
he  takes  naught  with  him.  Yet  if  man  has  sought 
the  best  couse  in  life,  his  reward  awaits  him  beyond 
the  grave.  There  he  finds  the  table  set  for  the 
happy  feast  that  lasts  through  eternity."  44 

In  Mair's  school  at  Sardes  one  of  his  most  devoted 
auditors  was  a  married  woman  who  missed  no  lecture. 
On  one  occasion  a  long  discourse  made  her  late  in 
preparing  the  dinner  for  her  husband. 

The  latter  threatened  to  divorce  her  on  this  ground, 
which  was  recognized  as  a  valid  one  by  rabbinical 
law,  unless  she  would  spit  at  the  Rabbi  who  had 
been  responsible  for  her  neglect  of  home.  The 
story  was  carried  to  his  ears,  and  when  the  woman 
next  came  to  the  school  he  insisted  on  her  carrying 
out  the  husband's  vindictive  wish.  He  knew  too 
well  the  meaning  of  a  family  disruption  to  let  others 
incur  it  for  the  sake  of  his  own  dignity.46 

Mair  was  not  the  only  distinguished  master  in 
Israel  who  had  to  suffer  in  repute  at  the  hands  of 
his  own  people  during  these  disastrous  times  for  the 
Jews.  His  first  teacher,  Elisha  ben  Abuiah,  with 
whom  Mair  kept  a  close  intimacy  during  life,  was  a 


RABBI   MAIR  205 

still  more  conspicuous  mark  for  jealousy.  He  was 
a  man  of  distinction  in  the  schools.  According  to 
the  Talmud,  Elisha  ben  Abuiah  was  taken  into  the 
Academy  of  Rabbi  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai  at  a  very 
early  age  and  enrolled  as  one  of  the  great  master's 
disciples.46  Under  the  guidance  of  Ben  Zakkai  he 
soon  developed  into  a  great  scholar.  He  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin,  in  both  of 
which  he  became  proficient.  He  specially  liked  the 
Greek  language  and  he  always  carried  a  copy  of 
Homer  with  him.47  He  loved  Greek  songs  and  sang 
them  in  the  Academy,  much  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
zealots.48  He  was  wont  to  compare  the  literature 
of  his  people  with  that  of  the  Greeks.  This  soon 
brought  him  to  the  consideration  of  other  subjects. 
He  contrasted  the  artistic  culture  of  Greece  with  the 
hard  and  dull  life  and  works  of  his  own  people.  He 
compared  the  hopeless  political  position  of  Palestine 
with  the  ever-growing  power  and  splendor  of  Rome. 
He  lost  sympathy  with  the  Hebrew  students  who 
crowded  dingy  schoolrooms  to  discuss  petty  points 
of  law.  His  heart  longed  for  the  glorious  cities  of 
Greece ;  he  desired  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  the  philoso- 
phers in  its  academies  and  to  walk  in  the  colonnades 
of  its  museums. 

Though  the  Rabbis  of  the  Nationalist  party  could 
condone,  if  they  did  not  share,  Elisha\s  enthusiasm 
for  Grecian  language  and  culture,  it  exposed  his  life 
to  serious  danger  from  the  blind  fury  of  the  popu- 
lace when  the  revolutionary  plot  of  Akibah  was  de- 
veloped. The  organized  "dagger  men  " — Siccarees 
— of    the  party    of   action   called    for    unhesitating 


206      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

adhesion  to  the  Jewish  revolution  from  the  learned 
and  unlearned  alike.  Lukewarmness  in  that  cause 
was  avenged  by  assassination.  The  only  safety  for 
those  who,  like  Elisha,  saw  the  hopelessness  of  the 
attempt  and  were  unwilling  to  prevaricate  lay  in 
flight  from  Palestine  or  in  joining  actively  with  the 
Roman  authorities.  He  chose  the  latter  and  he  was 
thenceforth  branded  as  a  traitor.  It  is  said  that  he 
took  part  in  persecuting  the  rebels  afterwards,  but  the 
few  particulars  given  of  this  charge  may  have  been 
but  an  exaggeration  of  those  whom  he  had  quitted. 
The  mystic  entrance  into  Pardcs  of  the  four 
Rabbis,  Akibah,  Ben  Azzai,  Ben  Zoma,  and  Elisha, 
— the  fate  which  ensued  for  each  has  already  been 
mentioned — "  may  have  a  political  meaning.  It  may 
refer  to  a  council  held  to  prepare  the  revolution  pro- 
jected by  Akibah,  and  the  failure  of  his  colleagues 
to  co-operate  successfully  with  him.  The  death  of 
Ben  Azzai  at  the  hands  of  the  Siccarees  was  a  not 
unlikely  event  if  his  fidelity  were  doubted.  The 
"cutting  of  the  plants  of  Pardes  "  by  Elisha  may  be 
typical  of  his  absolute  withdrawal  from  the  council 
of  the  Jewish  revolution.  Certain  it  is  his  name  was 
branded  as  that  of  a  traitor  and  apostate.  The  Tal- 
mud refuses  even  to  call  him  by  his  own  name.  He 
is  usually  Acher  (Another),  the  changeling,  the  rene- 
gade, not  Elisha,  the  Rabbi  and  master  in  Israel. 
Under  this  name  he  was  held  up  to  execration  by 
the  Rabbis  of  the  revolutionary  party.  His  fate  was 
sealed  in  their  minds  for  eternity.  The  dictum  of 
the  zealots  in  his  case  was,  "Repentance  can  win 
pardon  for  all  but  Acher."  M 


RABBI    MAIR  20J 

The  same  spirit  prevailed  after  the  fall  of  Bethar 
had  crushed  the  life  of  the  rebellion  of  Bar  Kochba. 
The  Rabbis  accused  Acher  of  aiding  the  Roman 
officials  in  the  suppression  of  the  Jewish  religious 
practices  and  pointing  out  the  stratagems  employed 
for  evading  the  penal  laws.  They  charged  him  with 
openly  breaking  the  ceremonial  law,  and  with  lead- 
ing the  young  away  from  their  religion  and  the  study 
of  the  Sacred  Writings."  He  was  said  to  break  in- 
tentionally the  law  of  the  Sabbath,  the  worst  offence 
a  conscientious  Jew  could  commit." 

While  Acher  was  thus  publicly  hated,  Rabbi  Mair 
never  ceased  to  maintain  close  intercourse  with  him. 
When  reproached  for  his  intimacy  with  an  apostate, 
he  justified  himself  by  the  intellectual  worth  of  his 
friend  and  protested  his  own  fidelity  to  Judaism. 

"I  eat  the  kernel  and  throw  away  the  husk,"  was 
his  pithy  description  of  his  intercourse  with  his 
former  master. 

Even  the  most  hostile  of  Elisha's  critics  recognized 
the  force  of  this  remark,  and  in  the  Talmud  the  say- 
ings of  Elisha  ben  Abuiah  are  treasured  as  a  valued 
part  of  the  intellectual  glories  of  Israel. 

It  is  told  of  Mair  that  one  day  as  he  was  delivering 
the  Sabbath  discourse  in  the  school  it  was  told  him 
that  Acher  was  riding  by.  Rabbi  Mair  abruptly 
ceased  his  sermon,  went  out  to  greet  his  friend,  and 
accompanied  him  along  the  road  to  gather  knowledge 
from  his  lips.  The  more  zealous  Rabbis  condemned 
this  act  of  Mair,  but  one  said : 

"A  man  like  Acher  is  as  a  nut  which  hath  fallen 
into  filth,  but  yet  may  be  eaten  when  its  husk  is 


208      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

separated  from  it.     The  sage  may  sin,  yet  the  wis- 
dom he  hath  gained  is  none  the  less  divine."  M 

Acher  appears  to  have  definitely  renounced  the 
practice  of  Judaism,  and  his  friend  tried  unsuccess- 
fully to  bring  him  back  to  the  fold.  He  visited  him 
on  his  death-bed,  and  Acher  listened  to  his  words 
with  pleasure,  but  there  is  no  sign  of  his  having 
sought  reconciliation.  Later  Rabbis  said  of  him 
that,  "he  died  in  error  and  would  not  be  punished, 
because  he  had  learned  the  law,  nor  would  he  enter 
Paradise,  because  he  had  sinned."  5* 

This  has  a  curious  resemblance  to  the  subsequent 
teachings  of  Mohammed.  It  is  more  than  prob- 
able that  Elisha  had  embraced  Christianity.  Mair's 
temper  would  readily  condone  such  a  change  in  his 
friend,  however  it  might  be  resented  by  the  zealous 
nationalists  of  the  Sanhedrin. 

When  Rabbi  Mair  left  his  native  land  after  the 
death  of  his  wife,  the  jealousy  of  his  enemies,  which 
had  been  kept  in  check  while  he  occupied  a  seat  in 
the  Sanhedrin,  broke  out.  His  friendship  for  Elisha 
was  made  a  charge  against  him,  as  if  he,  too,  had 
become  "Another."  Simon  ben  Gamaliel,  the 
President,  did  not  forget  the  humiliations  he  had 
received  from  the  wit  of  Rabbi  Mair,  and  he  avenged 
himself  by  refusing  to  allow  him  the  title  of  Rabbi. 
When  necessity  forced  him  to  quote  any  of  Mair's 
former  decisions  he  always  suppressed  his  name,  and 
prefaced  them  with  the  remark,  "Others  say."  The 
allusion  to  "Acher,"  the  hated  "Other  one,"  was  pal- 
pable, and  the  object  was  to  brand  the  illustrious  exile 
with  a  charge  which  he  dared  not  make  in  set  terms. 


RABBI    MAIR  209 

Mair,  with  all  his  Grecian  tastes  and  wit,  was  a 
thorough  Hebrew  in  love  for  his  land  and  people. 
When  death  came  to  him  in  Sardes,  his  dying  in- 
junction was: 

"Bury  me  on  the  shore,  that  the  sea  which  washes 
the  land  of  my  fathers  may  also  touch  my  bones."  " 

With  his  death,  as  often  happens,  a  revulsion 
came  in  the  minds  of  the  people  towards  the  illus- 
trious dead.  The  Rabbis  who  had  assailed  him 
while  living  bewailed  his  death  as  the  fall  of  a 
"Mighty  one  in  Israel." 

"With  Mair  died  the  race  of  makers  of  parables  " 
was  their  verdict  on  him.66 

His  words  were  recorded  and  handed  down  for  the 
instruction  of  future  generations.  Even  Acher's 
memory  shared  in  the  popular  favor. 

"When  Rabbi  Mair  died  the  smoke  that  was  rising 
from  the  grave  of  Acher  passed  away,"  is  the  quaint 
expression  with  which  the  Talmud  records  this  fact.67 

The  sayings  of  Acher  under  his  own  name  were 
embodied  in  Jewish  literature  in  the  work  of  Chap- 
ters of  the  Fathers.™  His  name,  though  not  coupled 
with  the  title  Rabbi,  was  reverenced  as  that  of  a 
sage  who  was  one  of  the  intellectual  glories  of  his 
people.  His  honorable  poverty,  too,  was  remem- 
bered, and  when  in  after  years  his  daughter  came 
to  ask  of  Rabbi  Juda  the  prince  a  pension  for  her 
support,  as  was  wont  for  the  children  of  Rabbis,  he 
granted  it  in  memory  of  his  learning.69  The  words 
of  Acher,  the  branded  Jew  of  his  time,  have  fur- 
nished themes  for  preachers  of  the  Synagogue  during 
the  subsequent  ages.     When  Rabbi  Juda  compiled 


2IO      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

the  Mishnah,  he  gave  place  in  its  pages  to  the  say- 
ings of  both  Mair  and  Elisha,  as  two  of  the  foremost 
lights  of  Israel. 

It  was  a  notable  instance  of  the  passing  nature  of 
the  cause  of  Jewish  independence  which  had  clouded 
the  lives  of  both.  Intellectual  work  was  recognized 
as  too  precious  a  part  of  the  national  inheritance  to 
be  thrown  away,  however  hated  in  life  the  workers 
might  have  been.  The  truth  of  the  axiom  formu- 
lated by  Rabbi  Mair  was  recognized  by  all,  and  with 
it  this  chapter  may  fittingly  close : 

"He  who  studies  the  law  for  its  own  sake,"  he 
says,  "merits  much,  and  the  world  owes  him  much. 
He  is  called  a  dear  friend :  dear  to  God  and  dear  to 
mankind.  He  rejoiceth  God  and  His  creatures. 
Study  clotheth  him  with  meekness  and  the  fear  of 
God;  it  showeth  the  way  to  justice,  to  piety, 
righteousness,  and  faith ;  it  removeth  from  sin,  and 
bringeth  to  high  station.  The  world  is  benefited 
by  his  counsel,  wisdom,  understanding,  and  strength. 
It  bestoweth  empire,  dominion,  and  reason 
itself.  The  secrets  of  the  law  are  revealed  unto  the 
student  and  make  him  as  an  overflowing  fountain,  a 
never-failing  river.  They  make  him  modest,  slow 
to  anger,  and  ready  to  forgive.  They  exalt  and 
magnify  him  above  all  beings."  eo 


CHAPTER   IX 

RABBI    SIMON   BEN    VOHAI 

THROUGH  the  rebellion  of  Bar  Kochba  and 
the  calamities  which  followed  it  for  the  Jewish 
people  in  Palestine,  the  House  of  Hillel  seems  to 
have  passed  unscathed.  The  presidency  of  the 
Sanhedrin  had  practically  become  hereditary  in  the 
family  of  the  great  Babylonian  Rabbi.  He  had  won 
the  office  by  his  abilities,  the  wealth  he  amassed  and 
transmitted  to  his  descendants;  and  his  admitted 
descent  from  David  secured  it  afterwards  for  many 
generations  to  members  of  his  family.  Though  no 
political  power  was  attached  to  it,  the  veneration  of 
the  people  made  the  patriarchate  a  shadow  of  royalty 
in  Palestine.  Its  possessors  were  careful  not  to  risk 
it  by  joining  in  the  revolution  attempted  by  Akibah, 
and  when  that  was  crushed  by  the  Romans,  the 
wealth  of  Hillel's  descendants  escaped  confiscation. 
It  was  the  Rabbis  of  the  school  opposed  to  the 
Hillelites,  the  House  of  Shammai,  who  had  been 
chiefly  prominent  in  the  rebellion,  and  the  House  of 
Hillel,  though  it  still  enjoyed  the  respect  of  the 
masses  as  its  spiritual  leaders,  was  not  an  object  of 
suspicion  to  Rome. 

Among  the  devoted  adherents  of  Akibah  who  sur- 

211 


212      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

vived  him  the  most  noted  were  Mair  and  Simon  ben 
Yohai.  Both  had  visited  Akibah  during  his  im- 
prisonment, and  both  after  his  death  received  the 
degree  of  Rabbi  from  Rabbi  Juda  ben  Babba.1 
The  latter  was  an  enthusiastic  partisan  of  Akibah  in 
the  national  revolution,  and  after  its  failure  he  con- 
tinued to  teach  in  defiance  of  the  edicts  of  Hadrian 
against  Jewish  instruction.2  His  rigid  observance 
of  the  ceremonies  of  the  law  was  such  that  when 
the  hours  prescribed  for  prayer  came  he  would  omit 
every  other  employment  to  give  himself  to  them. 
The  Talmud  tells  that  once,  while  travelling  on  the 
road,  he  thus  stopped  to  pray  there.  A  chieftain 
came  by  on  horseback  and  courteously  saluted  him, 
but  the  Rabbi,  absorbed  in  his  devotions,  made  no 
answer  till  he  had  finished  his  prayers.  The  angry 
chief  said  then  : 

'Your  law  bids  you  be  careful  of  life,  yet  you 
have  been  careless  of  your  own,  for  there  was  none 
to  hinder  had  I  cut  off  your  head  when  you  answered 
not  my  greeting." 

"I  ask  thy  pardon  for  that;  but  answer  me, — if 
thou  wert  speaking  to  the  king,  and  a  friend  ad- 
dressed thee,  wouldst  thou  turn  from  the  king's 
face  to  answer  it?  " 

"It  would  be  as  much  as  my  head  were  worth," 
answered  the  chief. 

"Then  if  such  be  the  risk  for  showing  disrespect 
to  a  mortal  king,  what  would  I  have  deserved  had  I 
shown  irreverence  to  the  King  of  kings,  who  is  from 
eternity  to  eternity?  I  stood  in  supplication  before 
Him  when  thou  deignedst  to  salute  me." 


RABBI    SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  213 

The  chief  accepted  the  admonition  in  good  faith 
and  the  two  parted.3 

Ben  Babba  continued  to  instruct  disciples  in  the 
law,  despite  the  persecution,  and  one  day  his  school 
was  surprised  by  a  party  of  Roman  soldiers.  He 
saw  them  coming  and  at  once  pronounced  the  form 
of  words  over  Mair  and  Ben  Yohai  which  made  them 
legitimate  Rabbis.  He  then  gave  them  his  blessing 
and  bade  them  flee. 

"But  what  will  become  of  thee,  Master?"  they 
asked. 

"I  stay  like  a  rock,"  he  answered. 

The  disciples  fled,  but  Ben  Babba  was  pierced  by 
the  Roman  lances  and  died  there.4 

Ben  Yohai,  though  an  ardent  disciple  of  Akibah 
and  a  devoted  patriot,  was  the  son  of  a  Jew  who  had 
entered  the  Roman  service,  and  held  high  position 
as  an  official.  He  seems  to  have  neglected  even  the 
religious  rites  of  his  people,  for  in  after  years,  when 
Ben  Yohai  was  a  Rabbi  and  a  religious  master  in 
Israel,  he  had  to  rebuke  his  widowed  mother  for  idle 
speech  on  the  Sabbath  Day.6  Whatever  his  father's 
wishes,  Simon  early  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  Jewish  law.  He  won  a  name  as  an  expounder 
in  the  rabbinical  schools  which  attracted  the  attention 
of  Akibah  during  his  career  of  revolutionary  propa- 
ganda. The  son  of  the  Roman  official  became  the 
friend  and  disciple  of  the  revolutionist,  and  was  thir- 
teen years  in  his  company  and  under  his  instructions.* 
Akibah  said  to  him  in  admiration  on  one  occasion: 

"As  I  live,  it  is  only  thy  Maker  and  I  that  can 
understand  thy  ability."  ' 


214      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Such  testimony  speaks  much  for  the  abilities  of 
Ben  Yohai.  Akibah,  on  the  other  hand,  was  adored 
by  his  disciple  with  his  whole  soul.  He  lost  not  a 
word  that  fell  from  his  lips.  He  copied  even  the 
manners  and  gestures  of  the  master,  and,  in  after 
years,  he  boasted  that  his  own  manners  were  mod- 
elled on  Akibah 's.8  Still  he  was  not  a  slavish  ad- 
herent. He  did  not  fear  to  reject  a  decision  of  the 
master's  when  he  believed  it  incorrect,  or  to  give  his 
own  explanation  as  sometimes  better  than  Akibah's." 

Simon  ben  Yohai,  like  Akibah,  was  a  married  man 
when  he  took  up  a  life  of  study.  The  latter  had  his 
abode  and  school  in  the  town  of  Benai  Berack,  far 
from  Simon's  residence,  and  Simon  left  his  wife  and 
children  to  dwell  apart  during  the  years  that  he  gave 
himself  to  study.  His  wife  at  last  urged  him  to  re- 
turn, as  their  daughter  was  of  an  age  to  marry  and 
needed  her  father's  care.  Ben  Yohai  did  not  heed 
the  call.  Akibah  heard  of  it,  and,  when  his  disciples 
were  gathered  together,  he  ordered  Simon  to  depart. 

"Let  him  who  hath  a  daughter  of  age  to  marry 
return  to  his  home  till  she  be  married,"  was  his 
command,  which  Ben  Yohai  had  to  obey. 

He  returned  to  his  house  unannounced,  and  the 
surprise  made  his  wife  swoon.  The  tardy  husband 
thought  her  dead,  and  exclaimed : 

"Lord,  is  this  the  reward  she  receives  who  hath 
awaited  me  thirteen  years?  " 

His  wife  fortunately  recovered,  and,  then  Ben 
Yohai  laid  down  the  sage  rule : 

"Enter  not  suddenly  thine  own  house,  much  less 
that  of  another."  I0 


RABBI   SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  21 5 

It  was  not  in  Akibah's  school  alone  that  he 
grounded  himself  in  knowledge.  A  curious  anec- 
dote of  him  in  the  Talmud  illustrates  this  fact,  and 
also  gives  an  idea  of  the  subjects  of  study  and  the 
methods  of  studying,  of  Hebrew  scholars  in  the 
olden  time.  Rabbi  Simon  was  explaining  to  his 
disciples  the  manner  of  observing  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles.  The  Law  of  Moses  required  all  free 
men  of  Jewish  race  to  reside  in  booths  of  branches 
during  the  days  of  that  festival.  The  Rabbi  laid 
down  the  law  on  the  subject  as  he  had  heard  it  from 
Gamaliel  II.,  the  descendant  of  Hillel.  He  told 
how  he  had,  when  young,  called  on  the  president  at 
Yamnai,  and  been  asked  to  eat  with  him  in  his 
booth.  Ben  Yohai,  with  other  guests,  came  with 
Gamaliel,  and,  when  they  entered  the  booth,  they 
saw  a  slave,  Tobi,  asleep  under  the  table. 

"See,"  said  Gamaliel,  "what  a  scholar  this  slave 
is;  he  knows  that  he  is  not  liable  to  the  obligation 
of  the  festival." 

From  this  Simon  learned  that  only  freemen,  not 
slaves,  were  required  to  observe  the  precept  of 
dwelling  in  booths  for  eight  days,  and  also  that  to 
fulfil  it  it  was  necessary  there  should  be  no  ceiling 
of  boards  like  the  table  under  which  Tobi  was  sleep- 
ing in  peace."  The  technicalities  of  the  law,  as 
elaborated  by  generations  of  Rabbis,  must  have 
rivalled  the  intricacies  of  an  English  Chancery  suit. 
Another  characteristic  anecdote  of  the  spirit  of  the 
students  in  the  schools  tells  how  Rabbi  Juda  bar 
Illai  said  contemptuously  of  Ben  Yohai: 

"  He  is  like  a  grinder  who  throws  out  only  a  little 


2l6      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

bran,"  meaning  that  his  original  remarks  were  of 
little  value.13 

Simon  hotly  asked  his  meaning,  and  was  parried 
with  the  adroit  explanation  : 

"I  but  meant  that  thou  grindest  much  learning, 
and  forgettest  but  little,  and  that  of  no  worth,  like 
bran.'"9 

Ben  Yohai  was  appeased,  but  the  feud  between 
the  masters  broke  out  later  in  another  place. 

After  his  ordination  as  Rabbi,  Ben  Yohai,  despite 
the  Roman  persecution,  established  a  school  in 
Thekoa,  a  town  in  Galilee;  either  through  his 
father's  protection  or  the  remoteness  of  the  place, 
he  was  not  molested. 

The  ardor  of  the  Jewish  students  for  the  pre- 
scribed studies  and  the  still  glowing  national  spirit 
brought  disciples  around  the  favorite  of  Akibah. 
Ben  Yohai  gloried  in  preserving  all  that  Rabbi's 
teachings,  and  he  looked  with  contempt  both  on  ^he 
scholarship  and  the  political  course  of  the  Rabbis 
who  adhered  to  the  House  of  Hillel.  When  the 
decrees  against  Jewish  schools  were  relaxed  by  the 
Emperor  Antoninus  in  138,  Ben  Yohai  came  among 
the  teachers  who  gathered  around  the  president  in 
Yamnai.  He  was  received  with  honor,  his  legal  lore 
was  admired,  and  in  private  his  adhesion  to  Akibah 
won  him  many  partisans  among  the  stricter  nation- 
alists. With  all  his  admiration  for  the  revolutionary 
Rabbi,  Ben  Yohai  had  not  committed  himself  to  any 
act  of  open  rebellion.  His  father  was  high  in  favor 
with  the  Roman  authorities,  and  Ben  Yohai  con- 
ceived the  audacious  project  of  securing  for  himself 


RABBI   SIMON    BEN    YOHAI  2\J 

the  presidency  of  the  Sanhedrin.  Gamaliel,  the 
holder  of  that  office,  died  in  140,  and  an  election 
was  held  to  give  him  a  successor.  The  patriarchate 
by  common  consent  had  been  hereditary  in  the 
House  of  Hillcl  for  a  hundred  and  thirty  years. 
Hillel  was  a  descendant  of  David,  and  while  a  son 
of  David  held  the  highest  office  in  the  nation,  though 
with  no  political  power,  the  Jewish  populace  recog- 
nized a  kind  of  continuation  of  his  kingdom  and 
felt  that  the  sceptre  had  not  altogether  passed  from 
Juda. 

Ben  Yohai  scoffed  at  this  sentiment.  He  derided 
the  little  learning  and  yielding  character  of  Gamaliel 
the  Patriarch,  and  when  his  son  Simon  claimed  the 
vacant  seat,  Ben  Yohai  demanded  it  for  himself,  as 
being  the  most  learned  Rabbi  in  Israel.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  council  were  not  ready  to  accept  his 
claims ;  indeed,  it  could  hardly  be  expected  that  the 
Roman  authorities  would  tolerate  a  friend  of  Akibah 
in  the  chair  of  the  Sanhedrin.  Simon  was  elected 
president,14  and  Ben  Yohai  left  Yamnai  in  anger  and 
disappointment  and  went  back  to  Thekoa. 

He  was  called  some  time  later  to  another  meeting 
of  the  Sanhedrin  in  Yamnai  to  settle  some  important 
questions  which  had  arisen. I&  Ben  Yohai  came,  but 
anger  over  his  defeat  still  burned  in  him.  He  bit- 
terly criticised  the  learning  and  what  he  considered 
the  political  cowardice  of  his  fellow-Rabbis,  and  he 
forgot,  in  his  heat,  that  the  Jewish  religion  only  was 
permitted  by  the  favor  of  the  all-powerful  Roman 
Empire.  During  the  synod  one  of  the  Rabbis, 
Juda   Ben   Illai,    spoke    in    terms    of  praise  of  the 


2l8      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

material  civilization  of  Rome  and  Greece.  The 
bitter  feelings  of  Ben  Yohai  were  not  to  be  sup- 
pressed by  considerations  of  danger.  He  denounced 
the  works  of  the  masters  of  Palestine  with  harsh 
contempt. 

"The  Romans,"  he  said,  "have  done  all  their 
works  for  self,  and  self-indulgence  alone.  They 
have  laid  out  streets  and  built  fair  buildings  and 
baths  and  bridges,  but  their  buildings  are  brothels, 
their  baths  abodes  of  sin,  their  bridges  only  tax 
offices  to  wring  tribute  from  the  poor.  They  have 
done  nothing  for  either  the  glory  of  God  or  the 
help  of  man." 

There  were  friends  of  Rome  and  enemies  of  Ben 
Yohai  even  among  the  Rabbis  in  their  religious 
gathering.  Juda  ben  Gorion  bore  to  the  prstorium 
the  seditious  discourse  of  the  angry  Ben  Yohai,  as 
well  as  the  speeches  of  the  other  Rabbis.  An  edict 
went  forth  from  the  Roman  governor: 

"Let  Juda,  who  spoke  well  of  Rome,  be  promoted  ; 
let  Josai,  who  was  silent,  be  exiled;  let  Simon  ben 
Yohai,  who  slandered  Rome,  be  executed."  IB 

He  did  not  await  martyrdom,  however.  With  his 
son  Eleazar,  also  a  famous  scholar,  he  fled  to  the 
mountains.  There  they  remained  hidden  for  many 
years.  As  he  went  he  vented  the  bitterness  which 
filled  his  heart  at  the  forgetfulness  of  religion  among 
the  teachers  of  Israel  and  their  readiness  to  worship 
the  ways  of  the  heathen.  Ben  Illai,  the  panegyrist 
of  the  Roman  tyranny,  and  Ben  Gorion,  the  treacher- 
ous spy,  were  equally  hateful  to  him. 

"Once  I  used  to  think,"  he  said,  "that  had  I  been 


RABBI   SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  21 9 

with  Moses  at  Sinai,  I  would  have  asked  the  Lord 
to  give  man  two  mouths :  one  to  speak  his  own 
praises  alone,  the  other  to  speak  the  affairs  of  men. 
Now  I  see  my  folly.  For  if  man  with  only  one 
mouth  can  nearly  destroy  the  world  by  his  false 
speaking,  what  further  evil  might  not  come  had  he 
two  tongues  !  "  " 

Legend  has  woven  a  story  of  marvels  around  Ben 
Yohai  in  his  cave.  It  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  al- 
ways the  facts,  be  they  real  or  supposed,  which  the 
Talmud  tells  of,  from  the  figurative  imagery  with 
which  it  clothes  their  narration.  It  seems  best  to 
give  them  as  told,  for  thus  they  throw  light  on  the 
frame  of  mind  prevalent  among  the  Jewish  people 
during  the  last  days  of  their  sojourn  in  the  Promised 
Land  as  vassals  to  Rome.  We  are  told  that  Simon 
and  his  son  passed  thirteen  years  in  their  cave,  living 
on  the  fruit  of  a  locust  and  the  water  of  a  spring 
within  their  resting-place.  They  sat  and  slept  in 
the  sand  which  covered  its  floor,  and  Simon's  body 
became  covered  with  sores  ,8 ;  but  he  heeded  them 
not.  He  was  absorbed  in  reflection  on  the  law  of 
Israel,  and  he  discussed  it  daily  with  his  son;  grad- 
ually his  mind  was  drawn  away  from  the  passing 
things  of  human  life  to  the  invisible  things  of  eternity 
and  the  inner  nature  of  man.  He  looked  on  his 
former  existence,  with  the  strifes,  fears,  sorrows,  and 
deaths  which  had  filled  it,  as  only  a  dream  of  the 
night.  The  objects  pursued  by  the  majority  of  men, 
their  loves  and  their  hatreds,  the  greed  of  wealth  and 
honors,  even  ordinary  occupations  of  life,  became 
sinful  in  his  eyes.     The  one  thing  worthy  of  man's 


220      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

care  was  the  study  of  the  law.  To  that  he  gave 
himself  up  wholly.  He  went  over  in  mind  the  lore 
he  had  gathered  from  his  former  teachers,  he  pon- 
dered and  digested  all  in  his  cave,  even  while  the 
Rabbis  of  Yamnai  were  bewailing  that  study  had 
died  out,  and  that  the  law  of  Israel  seemed  in 
danger  of  perishing  for  want  of  knowledge.19 

Thirteen  years  had  thus  passed  when  word  was 
brought  to  Rabbi  Simon  that  his  life  was  no  longer 
threatened  and  that  he  was  free  to  return  to  the 
abodes  of  men."0  He  and  Eleazar  came  forth,  but 
everything  that  met  them  was  in  such  contrast  to 
the  bareness  of  their  mountain  abode  that  it  pained, 
rather  than  gladdened,  their  hearts.  The  very  birds 
and  plants  displeased  their  saddened  souls.  Ben 
Yohai  recalled  the  ruin  of  the  Holy  City,  the  tortures 
and  deaths  that  had  fallen  on  its  greatest  sons,  the 
misery  that  hung  like  a  cloud  over  the  people  of 
Israel,  the  treachery  of  his  own  colleagues,  and  he 
found  no  cause  for  joy  in  life.  He  rebuked  the  joy 
his  son  showed  at  revisiting  the  society  of  man. 
Man  has  no  right  to  rejoice  in  such  a  world  as  this, 
was  his  dreary  verdict. "' 

He  doubted,  after  all,  whether  it  were  good  to  ex- 
change the  calm  of  his  hermitage  for  the  affliction  of 
seeing  the  law  disregarded  among  men,  and  fear  of 
Rome  more  powerful  than  Jewish  national  feeling. 
As  he  revolved  these  things  in  his  mind  he  caught 
sight  of  an  archer  who  aimed  at  a  bird.  The  arrow 
missed  its  mark,  and  the  bird  flew  away  unharmed. 
Ben  Yohai  felt  his  fatalistic  faith  revived  by  the  sight. 

"If  even  a  little  bird  cannot  be  slain  without  the 


RABBI   SIMON    BEN   YOHAI  221 

consent  of  God,"  he  said,  "much  less  need  man  fear 
danger  from  the  malevolence  of  men."  And  so  he 
went  on  his  way." 

Mystic  power  had  come  on  him  during  the  days 
of  his  solitary  sufferings  and  study.  Nature  seemed 
to  bend  to  his  wishes,  even  passing  ones.  As  he 
walked  through  the  cultivated  fields  he  saw  men  and 
women  at  work.  His  reflections  on  the  vanity  of 
passing  things  revived,  and  he  said  bitterly  to  his 
son : 

"See  these  men  barter  eternal  life  for  the  idle 
things  of  a  day.  They  plough  and  reap  instead  of 
studying  the  law,  but  their  end  will  be  death." 

Hardly  were  the  words  uttered  when  the  husband- 
men fell  down  and  died.  The  voice  of  an  angel  re- 
buked the  intemperate  zeal  of  the  Rabbi. 

"Return  to  your  cave,"  it  ordered.  'Did  you 
only  leave  it  to  destroy  men? ' 

The  wayfarers  obeyed;  they  went  back  and 
dwelt  in  their  wild  cave  a  year  more.  Then  they 
came  forth  and  returned  to  it  no  more.53 

Though  rebuked  by  the  angel,  Simon  had  not 
wholly  removed  from  his  heart  the  bitter  zeal  he 
cherished  for  the  law.  As  he  travelled,  he  came  to 
a  field  where  men  were  culling  the  after-crop.  Now 
it  was  the  Year  of  Release,  when  it  is  not  lawful  for 
an  Israelite  to  cut  the  after-growth  of  his  field,  which 
is  the  inheritance  of  the  poor  and  needy.  Simon, 
however,  when  a  Rabbi  of  renown,  had  pronounced 
that  this  precept  was  not  binding.  His  decision  had 
been  overruled  by  the  majority  in  the  Sanhedrin,  and 
therefore  was  valueless  in  religious  law,  but  it  was 


222      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF  CHRISTIANITY 

still  quoted  with  approval  by  greedy  agriculturists. 
Simon  rebuked  them. 

"How  dare  you  act  thus?"  he  asked. 

"Art  thou  not  then  he  who  taught  us?"  was  their 
rejoinder. 

"Even  so,"  he  answered,  "others  and  the  greater 
number  rejected  my  teaching,  and  in  Israel  it  is  the 
ruling  of  the  majority  that  makes  the  law.  Know, 
then,  that  it  is  written  of  those  who  break  the  law 
that  serpents  shall  sting  them." 

Then  a  multitude  of  serpents  came  and  bit  the 
law-breakers.24  He  went  on  and,  as  he  approached 
Tiberias,  he  met  Juda  ben  Gorion,  the  same  who 
had  denounced  him  to  the  Roman  governor.  Rabbi 
Simon  looked  on  his  enemy  and  said : 

"Doth  this  man  yet  live?"  and  the  traitor  was 
suddenly  turned  to  stone.26 

A  milder  instance  of  this  power  was  given  in  the 
case  of  some  of  his  old  pupils  near  the  same  town. 
They  greeted  him  and  told  of  the  wealth  they  had 
acquired,  and  Simon  said: 

"Be  such  things  worth  prizing?  Lo !  I  need  but 
call  and  all  this  valley  shall  be  covered  with  gold." 
So  it  was  on  the  moment.     Then  Simon  said : 

"Take  all  you  please,  but  I  say  to  you  that 
whoever  takes  even  one  shall  forfeit  his  place  in 
Paradise.26 

Somewhat  similar  in  its  contempt  of  earthly 
things  was  his  answer  to  the  greetings  of  his  son-in- 
law,  Phineas,  himself  also  a  mystic  and  wonder- 
worker of  fame.  When  Simon  met  him,  Phineas 
was  struck  by  the  wretched  appearance  of  the  once 


RABBI   SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  223 

famous  master,  covered  with  rags  and  afflicted  with 
grievous  ulcers. 

"Woe  is  me  to  see  my  master  thus!'  he  ex- 
claimed. 

"Nay,  my  son,"  said  Simon,  mildly;  "rather  say, 
'Joy  that  I  see  thee  thus'  ;  for  of  a  truth,  were  I 
otherwise  you  would  find  nothing  worthy  of  honor 
in  me.      7 

Phineas  dwelt  in  Tiberias,  and  Simon  remained 
there  instead  of  going  to  Yamnai,  the  seat  of  the 
Sanhedrim  The  air  of  Tiberias  was  mild;  the  town 
abounded  in  hot  springs,  and  its  surroundings  were 
beautiful,  but  it  was  under  a  ban  of  superstition  as  a 
residence  with  the  stricter  Jews.  It  had  been  rebuilt 
in  Roman  style  by  Herod,  on  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
city,  and  the  Jewish  Quarter  was  located  on  the  site 
of  a  cemetery.  For  this  reason  the  law  made  it  un- 
clean as  a  residence  for  priests,  and  the  students  like- 
wise shunned  it.  Simon  ben  Yohai  declared  that 
tradition  promised  it  would  yet  be  made  clean,*8  and 
he  realized  the  prediction  by  having  the  old  graves 
sought  out  and  the  bones  removed  to  another  place. 
Then  he  formally  pronounced  the  city  "clean,"  and 
opened  his  school  there.  His  fame  was  widespread 
already,  and  crowds  came  to  study  at  his  feet. 
Tiberias  became  a  centre  of  Jewish  learning,  which 
later  overshadowed  Yamnai  and  every  other  seat  of 
instruction  in  Palestine. 

The  fame  of  Ben  Yohai  as  a  worker  of  wonders 
grew  rapidly  with  the  renewal  of  his  active  teaching. 
The  Talmud,  by  a  bold  flight,  represents  him  as  even 
making   the  will  of   the  Roman  emperor   bend   to 


224      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

his  mystic  powers.  It  tells  how  Marcus  Aurelius 
designed  to  renew  the  edicts  of  Hadrian  against  the 
Jewish  rites,  and  that,  in  their  despair,  the  people 
besought  Rabbi  Simon  to  go  in  person  to  Rome  and 
plead  for  mercy.  Simon  consented  on  condition 
that  the  son  of  his  old  colleague,  Ben  Josai,  the  same 
who  had  held  his  peace  when  Ben  Yohai  denounced 
Roman  ways  in  the  Sanhedrin,  should  go  with  him. 
josai  feared  some  evil,  but  yielded  at  the  prayers  of 
the  people.  Simon  and  the  son  of  Josai  set  out  on 
their  embassy. 

He  did  not  count  on  entreaties  for  the  success  of 
his  mission.  The  Talmud  tells  how  on  his  way  he 
met  a  demon,  Tamalion,  and  him  he  commanded  to 
take  possession  of  the  daughter  of  the  emperor. 
When  the  envoys  reached  the  capital  they  found  all 
its  people  in  sorrow  for  the  fate  that  had  fallen  on  the 
imperial  House.  The  daughter  of  Aurelius  had  sud- 
denly become  a  maniac.  Physicians  were  unable  to 
alleviate  the  mysterious  malady.  The  emperor  was 
inconsolable  at  the  affliction  in  his  family.  Simon 
applied  for  an  audience  with  the  emperor  in  the  name 
of  his  people.  It  was  near  being  haughtily  refused, 
but  Aurelius  suddenly  remembered  the  reputation 
for  strange  powers  enjoyed  by  his  Eastern  subjects. 

"The  Hebrews  have  skill  in  medicine  and  in 
magic,"  he  said,  "perhaps  this  man  may  cure  my 
daughter.     Let  him  be  admitted." 

"Peace  to  thee,  O  lord,"  said  Simon  when  he 
entered  the  council-chamber. 

"There  is  no  peace  where  sorrow  dwells,"  was  the 
caesar's  answer. 


RABBI    SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  225 

"What  can  thy  heart  desire  in  vain,  mighty  Em- 
peror?" asked  Ben  Yohai. 

"My  daughter's  restoration  to  health,"  was  the 
reply. 

"If  thy  daughter's  illness  be  the  only  cloud  on  the 
august  face  of  caesar,  let  him  be  cheerful  now,"  said 
the  Rabbi,  "for,  by  the  living  God  of  Israel,  I  will 
restore  her  to  health." 

"If  thou  canst,"  exclaimed  the  emperor,  "thou 
mayest  name  what  price  thou  wiliest  and  it  shall  be 
thine,  though  it  be  all  the  treasure  of  Rome.  But 
beware  of  mocking  my  grief!  If  thou  failest,  not 
only  thy  life,  but  the  lives  of  a  thousand  of  thy  He- 
brew countrymen,  shall  pay  the  forfeit." 

"Show  me  the  maiden  and  thou  shalt  see  the 
power  of  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,"  was  Ben  Yohai's 
answer. 

The  emperor  brought  him  to  his  daughter's  room. 
She  was  a  raving  maniac,  and  spurned  her  father's 
caresses  and  entreaties  with  insane  fury.  Simon 
approached  and  fixed  his  eyes  on  hers.  Gradually 
the  fury  died  out  of  her  face,  her  eyes  grew  calm,  and 
were  fixed  with  an  entreating  look  on  Simon's  face. 
He  then  commanded  the  evil  spirit  to  leave  her,  and 
Tamalion  obeyed.  The  princess  threw  herself  into 
her  father's  arms,  cured  completely.  Aurelius  kept 
his  word.  The  Jewish  envoys  were  sent  to  the  im- 
perial treasury  and  bidden  to  take  whatever  they 
desired.  They  passed  through  and  saw  with  sadness 
the  plundered  treasures  of  Jerusalem,  carried  away 
years  before  by  Pompey  and  Titus.  They  shed 
tears  over  the  sacred  vessels,  but  they  touched  them 


226      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

not.  Simon  asked  to  see  the  record  of  edicts.  He 
took  therefrom  the  decree  of  persecution  already 
prepared  against  the  Jewish  people.  This  he  laid 
before  the  emperor  as  his  reward.  Aurelius  cheer- 
fully granted  his  desire  and  withdrew  the  edict.29 

After  Ben  Yohai's  settlement  in  Tiberias  a  gradual 
change  came  over  his  mind.  The  bitterness  of  his 
zeal  gave  way  to  mildness.  His  sayings  are  thor- 
oughly racy  of  the  soil  of  Palestine,  but  they  are 
stamped  with  a  liberality  very  unlike  the  spirit  which 
doomed  to  death  the  offenders  against  the  usage  of 
the  Year  of  Release.  A  few  examples  will  illustrate 
this: 

"He  does  not  sin  who  bows  before  an  idol  through 
force."30 

"Religion  can  never  be  a  cloak  for  evil  deeds. 
Unjustly  gotten  goods  are  not  sanctified  if  offered 
for  sacred  uses."  31 

'The  glory  of  the  Lord  accompanies  the  righteous 
to  every  land"  is  significant  of  the  change  which  had 
come  over  Ben  Yohai  from  the  time  he  identified 
Palestine  with  the  full  observance  of  religion.32 

Simon's  attachment  to  the  Jewish  law  was  deep 
and  lasting.  In  the  troubled  times  in  which  his  life 
was  cast,  many  of  the  Rabbis  feared  to  maintain  the 
traditions  of  constant  study  and  discussion  of  its 
precepts  which  had  been  so  large  a  part  of  national 
life  at  an  earlier  period.  They  feared  to  draw  down 
fresh  persecutions  from  the  jealousy  of  the  Roman 
rulers  if  they  drew  crowds  of  disciples  around  their 
schools.  They  admitted  the  need  of  educating  the 
youth  of  the  nation  in  the  law,  but  they  feared  the 


RABBI   SIMON    BEN   YOHAI  227 

risk.  They  excused  their  timidity  by  the  plea  that 
God  would  Himself  provide  for  the  preservation 
of  His  law,  and  that  efforts  were  not  needed  on 
their  part  for  such  a  result.  They  sought,  by 
casuistry,  to  minimize  the  duties  prescribed  for 
faithful  Hebrews  by  their  own  law,  and  they  held 
that  the  laws  of  the  dominant  heathen  power 
had  no  moral  force  over  Jewish  conscience.  They 
looked  with  indulgence  on  crimes  of  violence  or 
fraud  against  the  heathen,  and  bred  hypocrisy 
among  the  people  by  teaching  that  outward  obedi- 
ence was  all  that  was  desirable  from  Jews  to  the 
foreign  rulers.     Simon  held  a  braver  course. 

"Respect  authority  and  be  quick  to  obey,"  he 
said,  which  is  almost  the  same  as  the  precept,  "Fear 
God  and  honor  the  king." 

"Be  gentle  with  the  young  and  friendly  to  all 
men,"  was  the  complement  of  his  precept.33 

Yet  he  urged  the  strict  observance  of  those 
regulations  which  rested  on  the  Jewish  law  itself  as 
ardently. 

"One  should  not  speak  of  worldly  affairs  on  the 
Sabbath,"  34  and,  "If  all  the  people  would  but  keep 
two  Sabbaths  properly  their  salvation  would  be  at 
hand,"  3i  are  maxims  in  the  thorough  spirit  of  Juda- 
ism. He  illustrated  his  meaning  by  a  curious  par- 
able : 

"The  Fifth  Book  of  Moses  (*.  e.,  the  written 
law),"  he  said,  "appeared  before  the  throne  of 
mercy.  It  pleaded  its  cause:  'King  Solomon  hath 
destroyed  my  power  over  the  people  by  his  con- 
tempt  of  me.     The   law   forbids  many  wives  to  a 


228      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

man,  yet  King  Solomon  hath  taken  exceeding 
many.  It  says  the  King  shall  not  keep  many 
horses,  yet  he  keeps  horses  in  exceeding  number. 
It  forbids  to  lay  up  much  store  of  silver  or  of  gold, 
yet  Solomon  is  insatiable  for  gold  and  silver.  Even 
as  a  man's  testament  loses  force  when  part  of  it  is 
made  void,  so  am  I  made  void  among  the  people 
since  the  King  has  broken  part  of  my  precepts.' 

But  the  Lord  comforted  the  Book  and  said : 

"Solomon  and  hundreds  like  Solomon  shall  pass 
away,  but  not  a  jot  of  thee  shall  pass  or  be  for- 
gotten."36 

Simon  urged  from  this  the  constant  study  of  the 
imperishable  law  of  God  as  the  highest  duty. 

"He  who,  as  he  walks,  stops  his  contemplation  of 
the  law  to  speak  of  the  beauty  of  flower  or  field, 
sins,"  3T  is  his  maxim  on  this  head. 

Human  diligence  must  co-operate  with  God's  will. 
'To  live  up  to  the  law,"  he  adds,  "is  better  than 
to  know  the  law."  S8 

On  another  point  his  dislike  of  usury,  which  was 
forbidden  to  Jews  among  themselves,  was  expressed 
in  the  command  : 

"A  borrower  shall  not  be  the  first  to  salute  when 
he  meets  him  who  hath  lent  to  him,  nor  shall  he 
so  salute  through  other  men's  agency."  39 

The  precepts  of  general  morality  laid  down  in  his 
sayings  are  marked  with  a  stamp  of  mildness  very 
unlike  the  character  of  his  early  bitter  zeal.  Ex- 
perience had  evidently  softened  the  harshness  of  his 
temper,  and  the  Christ-like  tone  of  his  later  utter- 
ances is  remarkable. 


RABBI    SIMON   BEN    YOHAI  229 

"Life  is  earnest,  and  it  is  sin  to  be  frivolous  in  a 
world  of  sorrow. ' '  40 

"Love  is  a  jewel  in  Heaven's  treasury  which 
every  man  can  win  if  he  seek  it  truthfully."  " 

"It  is  a  higher  duty  to  honor  parents  than  to  make 
offerings  to  the  Lord.  If  a  man  be  poor  he  sins  not 
when  he  offers  nothing,  but,  rich  or  poor,  he  must 
pay  the  debt  of  honor  to  his  parents."  " 

"Speak  ill  of  no  man,  however  evil  be  the  times; 
even  though  children  do  not  honor  father  or 
mother,"  "  shows  how  strongly  Simon  regarded  the 
obligations  of  children  to  parents.  He  classes  its 
neglect  as  the  worst  form  of  social  demoralization. 

"It  is  worse  to  rob  a  man  of  his  good  name  than 
of  his  money, ' '  is  another  injunction  against  slander.44 

"Rather  throw  thyself  into  a  furnace  than  bring 
thy  fellow-man  to  shame."  " 

"If  thou  hast  wronged  another,  confess  thy  wrong 
aloud,  but  if  thou  hast  helped  him,  let  thy  kindness 
be  hidden  "  is  very  like  the  precept,  "Let  not  thy 
right  hand  know  what  thy  left  hand  doeth.46 

"Confession  of  sin  should  be  whispered,  lest 
others  hear  and  afterward  bring  the  penitent  to 
shame."  47 

"It  is  unworthy  of  man  to  make  earthly  things 
his  aim,  even  though  they  be  the  necessaries  of 
life."49 

"The  proud  man  is  an  idolater.  He  worships 
what  is  of  no  worth  [himself]."  49 

"A  sinful  soul  lives  in  fear;  for  conscience  is  its 
constant  accuser.  A  pure  soul  needs  not  fear,  for 
piety  is  its  guardian."  60 


230      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"A  stainless  name  is  better  than  a  priestly 
crown,"  61  and, 

' '  Great  is  work,  it  honoreth  a  man,"  "a  are  two  more 
of  his  precepts.  The  latter  he  carried  out  in  his 
own  practice  by  daily  carrying  his  own  satchel  to  his 
school,  notwithstanding  his  dignified  position.  It 
was  given  in  answer  to  the  criticism  of  this  habit  by 
some  of  his  pupils. 

"It  is  the  punishment  of  liars  to  be  disbelieved 
even  when  they  speak  truth,"  "  is  a  pithy  adage 
which  may  refer  to  the  men  who  had  offered  Bar 
Kochba  to  Israel  as  the  Messiah.  In  the  movement 
for  independence  lying  promises  had  beguiled  the 
people,  and  the  just  causes  of  complaint  had  been 
forgotten  in  the  falsehoods  which  were  coined  to 
accompany  them.  Akibah  and  his  fellows  had  seen 
visions  and  dreamed  dreams,  and  they  had  given 
them  to  the  people  as  revelations. 

"Dreams  are  but  echoes  of  idle  words, — grains  of 
fact  on  the  straw  of  fancy,"  was  Ben  Yohai's  pithy 
remark.64 

An  example  of  a  moral  precept  as  illustrated  by  a 
tale  is  interesting  as  a  specimen  of  the  literary  forms 
of  Eastern  people : 

"A  ship  was  crowded  with  passengers,  each  in  his 
place.  One  sat  apart  and  was  sullen  and  silent. 
Suddenly  he  took  an  auger  and  began  to  bore 
through  the  vessel's  side.  The  other  passengers  saw 
his  work  and  asked  what  he  meant. 

"'It  is  not  your  business,'  said  the  man;  'you 
have  your  places  and  I  have  mine.  I  have  paid  for 
it.     Can  I  not  do  as  I  like  with  my  own  ? ' 


RABBI   SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  23 1 

"  'Not  so,'  the  passengers  cried,  ' for  thy  deed  will 
destroy  us  all  with  thee.  The  waters  will  come  on 
us  as  well  as  on  thee.' 

"Thus,"  said  Rabbi  Simon,  "if  one  man  in  a  city 
sins  and  is  not  restrained,  the  other  people  of  that 
city  must  share  in  the  punishment  of  his  sin."  " 

These  quotations  give  an  idea  of  the  form  taken 
by  the  mental  activity  of  the  Jewish  race.  Widely 
as  it  differs  from  Western  forms  of  expression,  Ori- 
ental wisdom  is  not  the  less  genuine.  Among  the 
Hebrews  the  proverbs  which  are  the  delight  of  all 
Eastern  people  take  on  a  certain  authoritative  tone 
from  the  intimate  connection  between  the  scholars, 
or  wise  men,  and  the  expounders  of  the  divine  law. 
It  is  this  rather  than  any  other  cause  which  has 
made  literature  so  great  a  power  among  the  Jewish 
race  in  all  ages,  as  it  continues  to  be  to-day. 

An  anecdote  of  Simon's  career  as  a  judge  shows 
that  his  practice  was  in  keeping  with  his  preaching. 

When  holding  court  in  Sidon,  a  man  applied  to 
him  for  a  divorce.  The  wife  had  reluctantly  con- 
sented to  the  proceeding.  She  loved  her  husband, 
but  as  they  had  lived  together  for  ten  years  without 
children  born  the  law  granted  him  a  right  of  divorce. 
The  facts  in  the  case  were  easily  proven.  The  man 
had  other  wives,  and  children  by  them.  Simon  dis- 
liked to  separate  them,  and  talked  earnestly  with 
the  man  to  change  his  mind,  but  to  no  purpose. 

4 '  As  you  will, ' '  said  the  Rabbi, ' '  but  since  you  have 
lived  together  for  ten  years  I  advise  you  to  let  a  feast 
precede  your  divorce  ;  be  joyful  once  more  as  on  your 
wedding  day,  and  then,  if  you  will,  part  in  peace." 


232      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF    CHRISTIANITY 

The  Rabbi's  suggestion  found  favor  with  the  man. 
He  invited  his  friends  and  gave  them  a  feast.  Old 
wine  was  freely  drunk  by  host  and  guests.  They 
drank  the  health  of  the  woman  who  was  about  to  go 
from  the  house,  never  to  return,  and  as  the  husband 
lifted  his  cup,  while  bending  his  face  to  his  wife's,  a 
sudden  feeling  of  regret  filled  his  heart.  They  had 
been  happy  together,  and  but  for  his  desire  to  have 
children,  he  had  no  cause  to  send  her  away.  But 
as  divorce  her  he  must,  she  should  at  least  not  leave 
his  house  like  a  beggar;  she  should  have  anything 
her  heart  desired,  though  it  were  half  his  fortune. 

"Choose  the  dearest  object  in  my  house  and  it 
shall  be  thine,"  he  cried. 

She  bade  him  drink  more  wine. 

Soon  the  strong  wine  had  its  effect  and  he  became 
unconscious.  Thereupon  the  woman  took  him  on 
her  back  and  carried  him  to  her  father's  house. 

After  drunkenness  had  left  him  and  the  husband 
realized  where  he  was,  his  wife  said  to  him : 

"Behold,  I  did  as  thou  didst  command.  I  took 
from  thy  house  the  one  object  I  hold  dearest  on 
earth, — thee,  my  husband." 

Obviously  the  Rabbi's  ingenuity  had  been  at  work 
to  the  happiness  of  both  husband  and  wife.6" 

The  change  which  had  come  over  Ben  Yohai's 
mind  since  the  days  when  he  left  his  cave  to  smite 
transgressors  of  the  smallest  points  of  the  law  with 
death  is  very  striking.  By  a  strange  contrast  Ele- 
azar,  his  son,  whose  joy  at  leaving  their  mountain 
retreat  had  earned  the  stern  rebuke  of  Ben  Yohai, 
seemed  to  grow  more  bitter  in  his  zeal  as  the  years 


RABBI    SIMON    BEN   YOHAI  233 

passed  over  him.  He  scorned  the  Sanhedrin  which 
had  refused  to  choose  his  father  to  preside  over  it. 
He  especially  despised  Simon,  the  actual  president, 
and  Juda,  his  son.  In  youth  Juda  and  Eleazar  had 
been  fellow-students,  and  the  superior  abilities  of 
the  latter  had  been  acknowledged.  He  had  humbled 
the  son  of  the  House  of  Hillel  before  his  fellows, 
and  in  after  years  he  scorned  to  do  him  honor  even 
though  head  of  the  Sanhedrin.  While  Ben  Yohai 
lived,  he  restrained  the  harshness  of  his  son's  char- 
acter, but  when  he  was  gathered  to  his  fathers  Ele- 
azar gave  full  sway  to  his  antipathy  to  the  men  in 
authority  among  the  Jews.  He  professed  a  fanatical 
zeal  for  the  law,  but  he  coupled  it  with  a  hatred  for 
his  people  which  he  veiled  under  the  name  of  hatred 
of  sin. 

The  public  law  of  Palestine  was  the  Roman, 
and  Roman  officials  chastised  law-breakers  without 
mercy.  The  majority  of  the  Jewish  Rabbis,  while 
insisting  on  the  observance  of  the  law  of  Moses 
under  penalty  of  grievous  sin,  made  light  of  offences 
against  the  laws  of  the  heathen.  The  Sabbath- 
breaker  was  accursed,  but  the  robber  or  assassin,  if 
his  victims  were  not  of  the  House  of  Israel,  found 
indulgence  from  the  Rabbis. 

"A  Jew  is  a  Jew,  they  said,  and  before  the  Lord, 
who  is  the  Father  of  Israel,  the  wrongs  he  may  do  in 
his  dealing  with  the  heathen  will  not  be  laid  up 
against  him."  Eleazar,  whose  family  had  been  long 
associated  with  the  Roman  officials,  sternly  rejected 
this  laxity  of  moral  teaching.  Israel  to  him  was  as 
a  chosen  vineyard  from  which  it  was  a  sacred  duty  to 


234      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

root  out  sinners  as  the  husbandman  roots  out  weeds. 
Sinners  to  him  were  sinners,  whether  it  was  the  law 
of  Moses  or  that  of  Rome  which  they  offended.67 

He  did  not  confine  his  zeal  on  this  point  to 
theory.  Following  the  example  of  his  grandfather, 
he  joined  himself  to  the  Roman  rulers  of  the  land, 
and  was  made  a  captain  of  their  soldiers.  His  size 
and  strength  were  enormous,  and  his  earnestness  in 
carrying  out  the  Roman  laws  in  the  fullest  vigor 
was  unbounded.  Since  the  rebellion  of  Bar  Kochba 
the  land  was  full  of  Jewish  outlaws,  who  supported 
themselves  by  plundering  travellers,  and  regarded 
themselves  in  a  sense  as  patriots  in  their  resistance 
to  the  hated  foreign  law.  Eleazar  hunted  down  this 
band  without  mercy.  His  knowledge  of  the  country 
and  the  ways  of  the  Jewish  people  made  him  a  sin- 
gularly efficient  agent  for  the  Roman  government. 
No  man  could  deceive  his  vigilance  by  smooth 
speech,  such  as  satisfied  the  Roman  officials.  His 
instructions  to  his  men  were  emphatic : 

"Visit  the  houses  before  noon.  If  you  find  men 
sleeping,  then  ask  if  they  be  scholars  or  laborers. 
If  they  be,  let  them  alone,  for  work  brings  sleep. 
If  they  cannot  show  they  are  such,  arrest  them  at 
once,  for  surely  they  are  robbers."  M 

The  vigilance  of  Eleazar  cleared  the  country  of 
malefactors,  but  it  excited  keen  resentment  in  the 
minds  of  the  more  patriotic  Jews.  The  son  of  Ak- 
ibah,  Josua,  sent  a  message  to  Eleazar  in  stinging 
language. 

"Vinegar,  son  of  wine,  how  long  wilt  thou  con- 
tinue to  deliver  God's  people  to  death?  "  M 


RABBI    SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  235 

"I  only  destroy  the  weeds  in  the  vineyard,"  was 
the  short  reply,  to  which  Rabbi  Josua  rejoined : 

"Leave  the  owner  of  the  vineyard  [God]  to  de- 
stroy the  weeds."  60 

The  nickname  given  by  Josua  soon  became  com- 
mon among  the  people.  One  day  a  countryman 
applied  it  to  him  in  public.  Eleazar  was  angry  and 
bade  his  men  seize  the  insulter. 

"His  impudence  shows  him  a  robber,"  he  said, 
and  the  man  was  taken  to  prison. 

After  a  while  his  anger  cooled,  and  he  went  to  the 
prison  to  release  the  offender.  He  learned  he  had 
been  just  executed  as  a  robber.  Remorse  seized 
him  and  he  wept.  The  jailer,  who  was  a  Hebrew, 
to  console  him,  told  him  that  the  man  executed  had 
been  guilty  of  an  atrocious  crime  against  a  Jewish 
maiden,  which  merited  death  by  the  law  of  Moses, 
so  that  his  punishment  on  another  charge  was  sub- 
stantial justice. 

"Rejoice,  my  soul,"  said  Eleazar,  "for,  after  all, 
I  was  in  the  right."  81 

The  occurrence,  however,  made  a  deep  impression 
on  his  mind.  He  resigned  his  position  among  the 
Roman  soldiers,  and  sought  reconciliation  with  his 
countrymen.  A  curious  statement  in  the  Talmud 
may  either  symbolize  his  change  of  heart  or  tell  of 
an  actual  surgical  operation.  It  says  that  he  was  so 
fat  that  he  had  his  stomach  opened  by  surgeons  and 
many  layers  of  tissue  removed."  He  gave  him- 
self up  afterwards  to  prayer  and  penances.  Gradu- 
ally the  people  recognized  him  again  as  a  Rabbi 
and  teacher,  and  his  fame  grew  in  the  land.     He 


236      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

continued  his  hostility,  however,  to  the   president 
of  the  Sanhedrin. 

"The  Messiah  will  not  come,"  he  said,  "till  all 
judges  and  officials  have  disappeared  from  the  con- 
gregation of  Israel."  6S 

This  was  in  accord  with  the  utterances  of  Ben 
Yohai  against  Simon,  the  president  of  his  day. 

"The  man  who  lacks  knowledge  of  the  law  had 
better  not  discuss  the  law,"  '*  and, 

"It  is  as  much  a  duty  not  to  discuss  what  one 
does  not  understand  as  to  discuss  what  one  under- 
stands." " 

Rabbi  Juda,  the  son  of  Simon  and  his  successor 
as  president,  could  not  pardon  the  attacks  of  Eleazar. 
He  branded  him  as  "The  evil-doer  who  destroyed 
many  of  the  seed  of  Israel."  6S  Phineas  ben  Yares, 
the  son-in-law  of  Ben  Yohai,  also  refused  to  have 
anything  to  do  with  Eleazar,  and  his  life  was  em- 
bittered by  frequent  criticisms. 

A  tale  in  the  Talmud  may  illustrate  his  position 
and  the  feelings  of  the  people  towards  him. 

Once,  it  runs,  Rabbi  Eleazar  was  riding  from 
Migdol  Goser,  and,  as  he  came  to  a  river,  he  dropped 
the  rein  to  let  his  mule  eat  grass.  Pride  and  glad- 
ness filled  his  heart  as  he  thought  of  how  much 
learning  was  his.  As  he  pondered  on  the  decision 
of  his  masters,  a  misshapen  man  passed  that  way 
and  saluted  him,  but  Eleazar  paid  no  heed  to  the 
salute.  The  man  made  a  sharp  comment  on  his 
rudeness,  and  Eleazar  was  angry. 

"Are  all  the  people  in  thy  town  as  ugly  as  thou?  " 
he  asked. 


RABBI    SIMON    BEN   YOHAI  237 

"I  know  not,"  the  man  replied,  "but  if  my  body 
does  not  please  thee,  thou  art  at  liberty  to  ask  my 
Maker  why  He  hath  made  me  an  ugly  vessel." 

The  answer  made  Eleazar  conscious  of  the  ill  grace 
of  his  words.  He  sprang  from  the  mule  and  humbly 
begged  the  man's  pardon. 

"I  will  not  pardon  thee,"  said  the  man,  "until 
thou  hast  made  complaint  to  my  Maker  of  the  ugli- 
ness of  His  handiwork." 

He  walked  on,  followed  by  Eleazar,  who  again 
begged  to  be  forgiven  ;  for,  according  to  the  law,  he 
had  to  receive  the  man's  forgiveness  ere  he  could 
hope  to  be  forgiven  by  God.87  But  the  man  was 
obdurate,  and  there  was  nothing  left  for  Eleazar  but 
to  keep  up  his  plea  until  they  reached  the  city,  and 
there  ask  the  man's  pardon  publicly  :  should  the  latter 
persist  in  his  refusal,  the  conscience  of  the  Rabbi 
would  be  clear,  as  the  humility  would  offset  the 
offence.  The  town  was  Eleazar's  rabbinical  seat, 
and  the  people,  having  expected  him,  had  gathered 
in  numbers  to  salute  him 

"Hail,  our  Rabbi  and  our  Master!  "  they  cried. 

"Whom  call  ye  Rabbi  and  Master?"  the  ugly 
man  asked. 

"He  who  follows  thee,"  the  people  replied. 

"If  he  is  a  Rabbi,"  said  the  man,  "then  may 
there  be  none  like  him  in  Israel!  " 

They  asked  him  why,  and  he  told  what  had  taken 
place  on  the  road. 

"Yet  we  beg  of  thee  to  forgive  him,"  the  elders 
pleaded,  "for  he  is  a  great  man  and  learned  in  the 
law." 


238      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

"For  your  sake,  then,  will  I  forgive  him,  but  on 
condition  that  he  never  do  such  a  thing  again,"  said 
the  man. 

When  Rabbi  Eleazar  heard  these  words  a  great 
joy  filled  his  heart,  and  forthwith  he  preached  a 
sermon  in  the  public  square,  the  burden  of  which 
was  mercy  and  forgiveness.  "Let  man  ever  be 
yielding  as  a  reed  and  not  hard  and  unbending  as 
the  cedar,"  he  cried.68 

This  anecdote  illustrates  the  mingled  respect  and 
dislike  with  which  the  son  of  Ben  Yohai  was  re- 
garded. His  father  had  died  in  165,  and  the  people 
bore  his  body  to  the  cave  where  he  and  Eleazar  had 
dwelt  so  long.  It  became  a  pilgrimage  for  the  re- 
ligious among  the  people,  for  Ben  Yohai's  fame  was 
great  as  a  worker  of  miracles.  It  has  lasted.  A 
correspondent  of  the  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle 
in  1888  says: 

"During  the  month  of  April,  Jewish  pilgrims 
leave  this  city  [Damascus]  for  the  purpose  of  cele- 
brating the  thirty-third  day  of  Omer  at  Mitan,  where 
they  visit  the  tomb  of  Rabbi  Simon  ben  Yohai.  It 
is  a  touching  sight  to  behold  invalids  of  every  de- 
scription undertaking  the  long  journey,  full  of  hope 
and  firm  in  the  faith  that  the  proximity  of  the  sacred 
tomb  will  cure  them  of  all  their  infirmities." 

Eleazar  felt  keenly  his  position,  and  his  health  de- 
clined through  grief.  He  found  his  end  approaching 
and  he  knew  that  his  body  would  not  be  allowed  to 
rest  with  his  father's.  He  called  his  faithful  wife 
and  told  her  his  wishes. 

"I  have  been  a  proud  man  all  my  days  and  have 


RABBI    SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  239 

done  what  was  right  in  my  eyes  without  fear.  I  have 
never  failed  to  correct  my  course  when  I  thought  I 
had  erred,  but  the  men  around  me  will  not  forgive 
me.  Meanly  they  have  acted  during  my  life,  and 
meanly  they  will  do  when  I  am  no  more.  I  know 
they  will  not  accord  my  body  the  respect  due  to  my 
learning-  and  the  honor  due  to  the  son  of  Ben  Yohai. 
I  charge  thee,  dear  and  faithful  wife,  to  make  no 
announcement  of  my  death,  nor  to  bury  my  body, 
but,  wrapping  it  in  the  shroud,  thou  shalt  put  it  on 
the  floor  of  the  attic.  Fear  neither  decomposition 
nor  other  ill;  for  neither  will  come  so  long  as  the 
secret  is  kept  and  my  body  remains  undisturbed." 

Tearfully  the  Rabbi's  wife  promised  to  fulfil  his 
request,  and  while  the  ashes  of  Ben  Yohai  were 
resting  in  the  cave  of  Meran  that  had  sheltered  him 
and  his  son  for  so  many  years,  the  body  of  Eleazar 
lay  in  the  garret,  unknown  and  unmourned  by  any 
but  his  faithful  wife,  whose  love  had  out  lasted  death. 

After  many  years,"9  however,  the  secret  became 
known  to  the  Rabbis.  It  is  said  that  Ben  Yohai 
appeared  in  a  dream  to  the  Rabbis  and  said  to  them  : 

"I  have  a  little  dove  in  your  midst  and  you  refuse 
to  bring  it  to  me." 

The  Rabbis  investigated:  they  found  the  body 
and  carried  it  with  ceremony  to  the  cave  of  Meran, 
"to  let  a  worthy  son  rest  by  the  side  of  a  worthy 
father,"  as  the  Talmud  has  it.70 

After  Rabbi  Eleazar's  burial,  Rabbi  Juda  the 
Prince  sent  a  messenger  to  the  widow  asking  her 
hand  in  marriage.  She  answered  that  she  would 
count  such  an  alliance  a  personal  degradation." 


24O      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

The  prince  persevered ;  he  sent  another  message : 

"Thy  husband  may  have  been  more  learned  than 
I,  but  he  was  not  more  charitable;  he  did  not  excel 
me  in  works  of  practical  righteousness,"  was  his 
plea. 

'Whether  he  was  more  learned  than  thou,"  she 
replied,  "I  know  not;  I  am  a  woman  and  unable  to 
judge;  but  for  practical  righteousness  thou  couldst 
never  hope  to  be  counted  his  equal ;  for  he  under- 
went bodily  pain  to  serve  humanity,  while  thou  but 
givest  of  thine  abundance."  " 

Thus  the  enmity  between  the  son  of  Ben  Yohai 
and  the  son  of  the  House  of  Hillel  continued  even 
after  the  former's  death.  The  rivalry  between  Juda 
and  Eleazar  dated  from  boyhood. 

Once,  when  both  were  students,  Eleazar  had  pub- 
licly affronted  the  son  of  the  president  of  the  San- 
hedrim He  told  him  contemptuously  that  he  did 
not  comprehend  the  subject  which  he  was  discussing 
before  the  school."  juda  on  his  return  home  com- 
plained to  his  father,  the  president.  The  latter 
answered : 

"Take  not  this  to  heart,  my  son;  Eleazar  is  very 
learned,  but  remember  he  is  a  lion  and  the  son  of  a 
lion,  while  thou  art  a  lion,  but  the  son  of  a  fox."  7* 

This  remark  expresses  the  policy  of  the  House  of 
Hillel.  It  was  not  force,  but  diplomacy,  that  had 
maintained  it  in  power  and  wealth  so  long.  It  was 
diplomatic  skill,  the  cunning  of  the  fox,  that  had 
carried  its  fortunes  through  the  storms  of  Roman 
conquest  and  of  Shammaitic  intrigue  in  the  Sanhe- 
drin  itself.     That  skill  had  made  the  Davidic  descent, 


RABBI   SIMON   BEN   YOHAI  24 1 

which   could    not  be  taken   away,   to   be    regarded 

as  the  first   qualification  for  the  presidency.     Ben 

Yohai  might  be  more  learned  than  Simon,  but  he 

could  not  claim  descent  from  David.     Simon  may 

well  have  felt  that  in  the  condition  of  Israel  the  skill 

of  the  fox  was  more  desirable  than  the  roar  of  the 

lion,  and  he  impressed  the  lesson  on  his  son. 

Did  the  prince  follow  his  father's  advice?     Did  he 

employ  the  cunning  of  the  fox  in  his  dealings  with 

Jew  and   heathen?      Did   he  hold   tenaciously  the 

dignity  bequeathed  to  him  by  his  father?     Did  he 

make  the  House  of  Hillel  great?     The  life  of  the 

prince  shall  answer  these  questions.     The  work  he 

executed  stands  to-day  as  a  marvel,  and  will  last  as 

long  as  the  Jewish  race. 
16 


CHAPTER   X 

RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE 

THE  title  of  Prince,  associated  with  the  name  of 
Rabbi  Juda  alone,  in  Jewish  history,  is  not  an 
empty  form.  It  is  true  that  it  was  officially  borne 
by  every  president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  but  in  Juda 
alone  it  carried  a  certain  half-royal  character  that  be- 
longed neither  to  his  predecessors  nor  his  successors. 
His  succession  to  the  office  at  the  age  of  twenty-five 
was  due  not  to  his  talent  as  a  teacher  or  judge,  but 
mainly  to  the  hereditary  principle  which  had  been 
gradually  introduced  among  the  people  by  Hillel 
and  his  family.  Among  the  learned  doctors  who 
constituted  the  national  assembly,  the  young  presi- 
dent was  accepted  as  chief,  as  a  prince  is  allowed  to 
occupy  his  father's  throne.  His  bearing,  his  char- 
acter, and  his  weaknesses  were  those  of  a  prince 
rather  than  of  a  scholar  or  judge,  such  as  other 
masters  in  Israel.  His  life-work,  too,  was  in  keep- 
ing with  his  character.  It  has  been  felt  in  the  life 
of  the  Jewish  race  through  centuries  and  its  result 
made  the  title  a  part  of  his  name.  As  the  great 
Frankish  emperor  remains  the  great  Charles  (Charle- 
magne) through  history,  so  is  Rabbi  Juda  "the 
prince"  in  Hebrew  annals. 

242 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRTNCE  243 

A  few  words  of  explanation  are  needed  to  make 
clear  the  actual  office  of  Juda.  Under  the  last 
Jewish  kings  of  Palestine,  the  Sanhedrin,  an  assembly 
of  learned  doctors  of  the  law,  selected  for  their 
learning  by  choice  of  its  own  members,  was  practi- 
cally both  the  Supreme  Court  and  the  Legislature 
of  the  Jewish  nation.  The  Law  of  Moses  was  su- 
preme for  all  Jews,  king  and  peasant  alike.  It 
might  not  be  added  to  or  diminished  by  human 
authority.  It  had,  however,  to  be  interpreted  and 
applied  in  the  changing  circumstances  of  ages,  and 
the  right  of  such  interpretations  and  special  applica- 
tion was  vested  in  the  Sanhedrin  alone.  The  major- 
ity of  that  body  pronounced  what  the  law  was,  and 
from  that  law  there  was  no  appeal.  A  king  might 
obey  the  law  or  defy  it,  but  the  Jewish  people  could 
not  conceive  him  as  making  it.  The  priests  and 
Levites,  even  the  High  Priest,  were  equally  destitute 
of  such  power.  The  ceremonial  prescribed  by  the 
law  was  their  care, — not  its  teaching.  The  learned 
men  from  whom  the  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  were 
chosen  were  Rabbis,  or  teachers.  Jews  of  any  class 
might  enter  their  ranks  by  study  and  attending  the 
lectures  of  the  Rabbis  in  which  the  decisions  of  the 
past  on  everything  connected  with  the  law  were 
taught  orally.  Writing  was  reserved  mainly  for  the 
Scriptures  themselves;  the  comments  on  them  were 
preserved  by  constant  memorizing  and  repetition,  as 
the  Celtic  Druids  transmitted  their  lore  in  other 
lands.1 

When  Palestine  fell  under  the  Roman  sway,  the 
new  masters  left  the  Sanhedrin  intact.     The  law  of 


244      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Rome  was  supreme,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  Roman  citizens  obeyed  no  other,  but  in  the  in- 
ternal affairs  of  the  Jewish  people,  the  Sanhedrin 
was  left  to  direct  as  under  the  Hebrew  kings.  Its 
external  powers  were  not  enforced  by  Rome,  but 
the  Roman  authorities  were  willing  to  leave  their 
Jewish  subjects  to  their  own  customs  and  rites. 
Hillel  had  become  president  of  the  Sanhedrin  in  the 
days  of  Herod.  He  was  of  the  stock  of  David,  and 
when  the  sceptre  of  political  power  was  taken  from 
Judah,  the  presidency  became  all  the  more  important 
in  the  minds  of  patriotic  Hebrews.  Hillel  had  won 
it  by  his  intellectual  abilities  and  learning.  He 
transmitted  it  to  his  family,  who  retained  it  rather  by 
diplomatic  skill  than  legal  learning.  Their  Davidic 
descent  was  magnified  as  a  qualification  for  the 
leadership  in  Israel  apart  from  personal  talents,  and 
the  wealth  which  Hillel  had  transmitted  to  his 
family  aided  materially  in  the  election  of  successive 
presidents.  Gamaliel  II.  decreed  that  adherence  to 
the  House  of  Hillel  should  be  a  necessary  qualifica- 
tion for  admission  to  the  Sanhedrin.3  His  son 
Simon  surrounded  his  office  with  new  forms  and 
ceremonies  well  calculated  to  impress  the  popular 
mind.  When,  on  the  death  of  Gamaliel,  Ben  Yohai, 
the  most  famous  Rabbi  of  his  day,  attempted  to  dis- 
pute the  election  of  Gamaliel's  son,  he  was  defeated 
by  the  votes  of  his  colleagues.  When  Simon  ben 
Gamaliel  came  to  die,  his  son,  the  youthful  Juda, 
was  put  in  his  seat  without  opposition  as  the  natural 
head  of  the  congregation  of  Israel. 

Juda  was  born  in  a  time  of  calamity  for  his  people. 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  245 

Tradition  tells  that  it  was  on  the  day  of  the  execu- 
tion of  Akibah,  the  last  champion  of  Jewish  inde- 
pendence.3 His  father,  Simon,  and  the  chief  Rabbis 
of  his  party  had  not  joined  in  the  revolutionary 
movement  and  were  not  molested  by  the  victorious 
Romans.  Hadrian,  however,  vigorously  proscribed 
the  exercise  of  the  Jewish  religion  or  rites  in  Palestine 
after  the  defeat  of  Bar  Kochba.  Toleration  of  the 
religion  of  conquered  peoples  was  the  usual  policy 
of  Rome,  but  Hadrian  departed  from  it  in  this  case. 
In  the  stubborn  resistance  of  the  Jews  to  Roman 
rule,  he  recognized  the  workings  of  their  religious 
faith.  Though  he  could  not  comprehend  its  work- 
ings, he  saw  its  results,  and  he  strove  to  root  out 
the  practices  of  the  Jewish  law,  that  he  might 
make  the  Jews  as  other  races.  Circumcision  was 
strictly  forbidden,  among  other  rites,  but  Simon 
ben  Gamaliel,  however  yielding  in  political  affairs, 
was  a  strict  adherent  of  the  Law  of  Moses,  and  his 
infant  son  was  duly  circumcised.  It  came  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  authorities,  and  punishment  was 
threatened.  Simon's  wife  went  to  Rome  and  ap- 
pealed for  mercy  to  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Anto- 
ninus. She  obtained  pardon  for  her  family,  and 
Antoninus  even  revoked  the  edicts  against  the 
Jewish  religion.4  This  circumstance  contributed 
not  a  little  to  the  popularity  of  the  child  among 
the  people,  who  saw  in  him  a  sun  rise  again  in 
Palestine. 

Simon,  his  father,  spared  no  pains  in  preparing  his 
son  for  the  office  which  awaited  him.  He  educated 
him  carefully  in  all  the  lore  of  his  time,  both  Jewish 


246      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

and  Roman.  He  learned  many  languages  and  sci- 
ences.6 Greek  was  his  favorite  of  foreign  tongues, 
but  Hebrew  was  the  special  object  of  his  admira- 
tion. He  hated  the  Aramaic  jargon  which  prevailed 
in  Palestine,  and  when  he  grew  to  man's  estate 
nothing  but  the  pure  Hebrew  tongue  was  spoken  in 
his  house.  The  very  servants  spoke  it  with  elegance." 
When  scholars  used  Aramaic  in  his  presence  he  was 
outspoken  in  his  displeasure. 

"Why  speak  that  jargon,"  he  said,  "when  one 
has  Hebrew  or  Greek  at  his  command?  "  ' 

He  also  studied  the  physical  sciences  of  Greece, 
and,  with  all  his  patriotic  feelings  for  his  native 
tongue,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  give  preference  to  the 
astronomers  of  Greece  over  those  of  Palestine.8 

The  Hebrew  law  was  naturally  the  largest  part  of 
the  education  of  one  who  was  to  be  a  prince  among 
his  people.  His  father  sent  him  to  the  various 
schools  in  succession.  The  first  Rabbi  whose  lec- 
tures he  attended  was  the  famous  Ben  Yohai,  who 
had  been  the  rival  of  his  father.  In  his  school  he 
had  to  face  cutting  sarcasm  from  his  schoolfellow, 
Eleazar,  the  son  of  Ben  Yohai,  who  took  delight  in 
humbling  the  pride  of  the  House  of  Hillel  in  his 
person.  When  the  haughty  Juda  complained  of 
this  treatment  to  his  diplomatic  father,  the  latter 
bade  him  remember  that  though  a  lion  he  was  the 
son  of  a  fox.  Other  distinguished  masters  helped 
to  store  his  mind  with  Jewish  lore.  Among  them 
were  Mair,  Juda  and  Jacob  ben  Corshe.9  It  was 
with  a  mind  well  stored  that  he  assumed  the  office 
of  president  at  the  death  of  his  father  in  165,  though 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  247 

a  Patriarch  of  twenty-five  was  indeed  an  innovation 
in  the  Council  of  Israel. 

The  prince  accepted  his  election  as  a  matter  of 
right  divine.  One  rival,  he  admitted,  might  have  a 
better  claim,  but  only  one,  and  that  was  one  who 
made  no  pretence  to  seek  the  office.  The  Jewish 
colony  in  Babylonia,  which  had  been  settled  there 
since  the  captivity,  was  regarded  as  the  legitimate 
aristocracy  of  the  Hebrew  race.  They  enjoyed  a  far 
greater  degree  of  liberty  under  the  Parthian  kings 
than  was  the  lot  of  their  co-religionists  in  Palestine. 
A  prince  descended  from  David  ruled  the  Baby- 
lonian Jews  with  kingly  power  under  Parthian  su- 
zerainty. His  descent  from  the  Prophet  King  was 
more  direct  than  Juda's,  as  it  came  through  the 
male  line.10  Juda  declared  that  he  would  recog- 
nize his  right  to  the  presidency  of  the  Sanhedrin  if 
he  should  come  to  claim  it. 

"For  no  man  would  I  do,"  he  said,  "what  the 
Sons  of  Bethyra  did  for  my  ancestor  Hillel,  when 
they  yielded  the  presidency  to  him.  Were  I  in 
their  place,  I  would  not  have  given  it  up.  To  no 
man  would  I  resign  it  except  Huna  the  prince  of 
the  captivity  came  here  to  demand  it.  To  him  I 
would  give  place."  " 

There  was  a  good  deal  of  diplomacy  as  well  as 
pride  in  this  assertion.  The  recognition  of  descent 
from  the  royal  prophet  as  the  necessary  qualification 
for  the  presidency  of  the  Sanhedrin  was  a  principle 
which  could  only  confirm  the  authority  of  the  House 
of  Hillel.  There  was  no  likelihood  that  the  aged 
prince  of  the  captivity  would  ever  come  to  ask  the 


248      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

votes  of  the  Jewish  doctors  in  the  Sanhedrin.  How- 
ever, the  prince's  proclamation  was  made  the  occa- 
sion of  a  mortification  to  him  at  a  later  date.  The 
old  Huna  died,  and  his  body  was  carried  for  burial 
to  the  land  of  his  fathers.  One  of  the  Rabbis, 
Hiyah  the  Babylonian,  learned  of  the  arrival  of 
Huna's  body  in  Palestine.  He  went  at  once  to  the 
Sanhedrin  when  the  prince  was  addressing  its  mem- 
bers, and  informed  him  that  Huna  was  here.  The 
prince  staggered  and  nearly  swooned.  Hiyah  re- 
lieved his  fears  by  explaining,  "  Huna  is  here  in  his 
coffin.""  The  prince,  however,  would  not  forgive 
the  insult.  He  forbade  Hiyah  his  house,  and  it 
was  years  before  he  allowed  him  to  return  to  it. 
The  sons  of  Hiyah  repaid  the  prince's  severity  with 
interest.  At  a  feast  one  of  them  was  asked  to 
speak,  and  he  told  the  company : 

"The  Messiah  will  not  come  till  there  is  neither  a 
prince  in  Babylon  nor  one  in  Palestine."  " 

The  feeling  which  made  Juda  refer  repeatedly  to 
his  descent  was  not  mere  conceit.  When  he  scoffed 
at  the  insolence  shown  to  his  grandfather  by  the 
famous  Rabbi  Josua  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not 
for  a  smith  to  argue  with  a  prince,  it  was  not  a  mere 
expression  of  personal  pride.  He  looked  on  himself 
as  the  natural  ruler  of  his  people,  and  he  felt  that 
loyalty  to  his  house  was  a  moral  duty  for  every  con- 
scientious Jew.  The  continuance  of  the  rule  of  the 
House  of  David  was,  he  believed,  a  necessity  for  the 
ultimate  well-being  of  Israel.  It  was  to  support  its 
dignity  that  he  was  ready  to  admit  his  inferiority  to 
a  foreigner  in  Babylon, provided  he  possessed  Davidic 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  249 

descent.  To  no  other  would  he  condescend  to  bend 
or  apologize.  With  all  his  pride  of  birth  Juda  was 
affable  to  the  multitude.  He  gave  freely  of  his  vast 
wealth,  and  the  people  adored  him,  whatever  oppo- 
sition he  might  have  to  meet  from  rival  Rabbis  or 
offended  dignitaries.  He  was  skilled  in  the  art  of 
diplomacy,  too,  and  if  his  learning  did  not  dazzle 
the  Sanhedrin,  he  knew  how  to  make  it  endorse  the 
policy  which  he  deemed  suitable  to  the  needs  of 
the  people.  He  was  emphatically  a  prince  in  his 
ways. 

His  policy  in  the  limited  sphere  which  Roman 
power  left  to  him  was  that  of  his  great  ancestor 
Hillel.  He  had  no  thought  of  building  up  a  king- 
dom in  Palestine  or  emulating  the  patriotic  fervor  of 
Akibah.  His  object  was  to  secure  the  perpetuity 
of  the  religion  and  language  of  his  race,  not  the  in- 
dependence of  Palestine.  A  cosmopolitan  Jewish 
people,  he  hoped,  might  continue  to  exist  though  a 
Jewish  nation  could  not  be  maintained.  He  sought 
to  mould  the  law,  of  which  he  was  the  guardian,  to 
the  changed  conditions  that  must  come  when  that 
people  should  be  spread  over  the  world  instead  of 
being  dwellers  in  the  narrow  limits  of  Palestine. 

Though  zealous  for  the  Jewish  law,  he  cared  little 
for  the  ceremonial  of  the  Temple  worship,  which 
to  the  national  party  in  Palestine  was  the  centre  of 
religion  itself.  He  practically  annulled  as  obsolete 
the  laws  referring  to  priestly  service  in  the  Temple.14 
He  placed  the  education  of  children  in  the  right  path, 
— above  mere  ceremonies. 

"Interrupt  not  the  teaching  of  the  children,  even 


250      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

were  it  for  rebuilding  the  Temple,"  was  a  maxim  of 
hrs,15  and, 

"The  world  depends  on  the  breath  of  the  school- 
children." ,6 

What  teaching  meant  was  summed  up  in  the  law: 

"Every  one  is  bound  to  instruct  his  children  in  the 
ways  of  the  land  wherein  he  dwells."  " 

This  was  a  bold  regulation  for  the  times  when 
the  narrow  thought  of  many  Rabbis  identified  the 
land  of  Palestine  with  the  observance  of  the  law  in 
its  fulness.  Equally  so  was  his  precept  for  moral 
conduct. 

"Observe  three  things  in  thy  conduct  and  thou 
shalt  never  sin :  Know  there  is  an  Eye  everywhere 
that  seeth  thee,  an  Ear  that  heareth  thee,  and  a 
Hand  that  registers  every  wrong  of  thine."  " 

Whatever  opposition  J uda  experienced  in  his  own 
time,  later  generations  recognized  the  wisdom  of  the 
Prince's  laws.  His  decisions  were  given  precedence 
over  those  of  all  other  masters  except  his  father, 
Simon.  Even  the  famous  Rabbi  Mair's  authority 
had  to  yield  to  that  of  his  pupil,  Juda  the  Prince,  in 
the  schools  of  the  Rabbis  who  interpreted  the  law 
for  the  scattered  people  of  Israel.19 

The  whole  policy  of  the  prince  in  his  legislation,  as 
it  may  be  seen  from  the  foregoing,  was  to  make  the 
law  of  Israel  more  flexible  in  its  application.  Origi- 
nally given  to  a  pastoral  people  dwelling  in  one  small 
land,  many  of  its  regulations  could  not  be  carried  out 
in  other  circumstances.  The  ingenuity  of  many  gen- 
erations of  disputing  doctors  had  elaborated  these 
local  and  temporary  laws  almost  to  the  dignity  of 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  25 1 

divine  commands.  Man  was  made  for  the  Sabbath, 
not  the  Sabbath  for  man,  in  their  eyes.  Juda,  like 
Hillel,  strove  to  give  the  questions  of  local  ceremonial 
and  pedantic  deduction  their  fitting  place  as  acces- 
sory, not  essential,  to  the  due  observance  of  the  law. 
He  looked  to  the  people  scattered  over  the  earth 
rather  than  to  the  land  of  Palestine.  For  this 
reason,  though  religious  in  practice,  he  was  rather 
unfriendly  to  the  sacerdotal  class.  The  Rabbi  class 
to  which  he  belonged  had  nothing  in  common  with 
the  priesthood  of  Aaron.  The  public  worship  which 
centred  in  the  Temple  was  the  province  of  the 
priests  in  Israel  and  that  alone.  The  learned  men, 
the  Rabbis,  or  teachers,  were  the  judges,  the  legis- 
lators, and  even  the  preachers  of  the  law.  The 
Temple  had  perished,  the  priests  had  little  practical 
importance,  and  Juda  cared  little  for  their  favor. 
He  showed  no  special  zeal  for  the  restoration  of 
the  Temple,  the  dearest  wish  of  the  priests  and 
the  nationalists.  He  even  urged  the  abolition  of  the 
Fast  day  instituted  to  recall  its  destruction  on  the 
ninth  day  of  the  month  of  Abh.  Though  the  oppo- 
sition in  the  Sanhedrin  prevented  this  bold  meas- 
ure,20 it  shows  the  policy  of  the  prince  clearly  that 
he  proposed  it.  He  would  not  even  admit  priests, 
however  learned  in  the  law,  to  the  dignity  of  Rabbi. 
He  refused  it  to  the  learned  astronomer  and  doctor, 
Mar  Samuel,  apparently  on  no  other  grounds.21  He 
restricted  the  power  of  giving  the  degree  of  master 
to  himself  instead  of  leaving  it  to  the  discretion  of 
other  Rabbis.22 

The   tendency  of  Juda's  legislation    was  shown 


252      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

further  by  the  modifications  he  introduced  in  the 
Sabbath  observance.  It  had  been  developed  to 
fantastic  proportions  by  the  casuistry  of  earlier 
doctors.  Faithful  Jews  might  have  no  fire  kindled 
on  that  day  or  touch  objects  used  on  other  days. 
These  prohibitions  were  abolished  by  the  Sanhedrin 
under  Juda's  rule.  The  regulation  which  obliged 
travellers  to  halt  and  prostrate  themselves  at  the 
hours  of  prayer  was  in  force  among  the  Jews  of  his 
day,  as  among  the  Mohammedans  of  ours.  The 
prince  pronounced  it  needless.  A  traveller  should 
pray,  but  might  pray  as  he  travelled.2"  Travel  on 
the  Sabbath  was  permitted  and  the  heating  of  food.24 
In  fasting,  he  also  lessened  the  minute  details  of  the 
national  Rabbis. 

"Burden  not  the  congregation  with  over  many 
fasts,"  was  his  dictum." 

Another  important  ruling  was  that  circumcision, 
which  had  been  absolutely  required  of  every  Jewish 
family,  might  be  omitted  in  case  of  danger  to  life.88 
The  older  Rabbis  admitted  that  this  and  similar 
ceremonial  laws  might  be  omitted  to  save  life,  but 
on  no  other  grounds.  Juda  enlarged  the  exemption 
by  decreeing  that  danger  to  life  warranted  its  use.27 

It  need  not  be  thought  that  with  all  his  wealth  and 
official  dignity  Juda  carried  out  these  measures  with- 
out opposition.  The  graybeards  of  the  Sanhedrin 
felt  their  professional  pride  offended  by  the  legis- 
lative activity  of  one  whom  they  regarded  as  but  a 
boy.  His  Davidic  descent,  though  honorable,  they 
did  not  count  as  filling  Juda  with  wisdom  like  theirs. 
By  old  practice,  election  to  the  council  depended 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  253 

solely  on  personal  merit,  as  in  the  Catholic  Church 
to-day  any  priest,  or  even  a  layman,  may  be  raised  to 
the  Papal  office.  They  favored  not  the  claim  of  the 
prince  to  give  the  rabbinical  dignity  at  his  personal 
will  alone.  They  recalled  how  his  grandfather  had 
been  deposed  from  office  by  a  vote  of  the  Assembly, 
and  they  did  not  fail  to  remind  him  of  the  fact  when 
his  autocratic  manners  were  too  freely  exercised. 
Criticism  of  his  pride  and  his  inferiority  in  learning 
to  the  famous  masters  was  common  in  the  schools. 
A  certain  Bar  'Haninah  criticised  his  pronunciation 
of  Hebrew  as  not  according  to  the  correct  Baby- 
lonian standard.  Juda  told  him  he  would  never 
make  him  a  Rabbi  till  he  returned  to  his  masters 
in  Babylon."8  He  had  to  call  in  the  medical  service 
of  Mar  Samuel  to  whom  he  had  refused  the  same 
honor,  and  he  tried  to  excuse  his  action  to  the  phy- 
sician.    The  latter  sarcastically  told  him: 

"It  is  written  in  the  Book  of  Adam  that  'Samuel 
shall  be  not  a  Rabbi,  but  a  sage  through  whom  the 
prince  shall  be  healed.' 

It  was  the  gibe  of  a  scholar,  and  Juda  bore  it 
patiently." 

It  was  different  with  Bar  Kappara,  a  celebrated  wit, 
who  took  occasion  at  a  feast  to  insult  him  in  his  own 
house.  The  son-in-law  of  the  prince  asked  Bar 
Kappara  to  frame  a  riddle  for  him  to  repeat  before 
the  guests.  The  malicious  wit  made  one,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  was  insulting  to  his  host.  Juda  never 
forgave  the  affront,  and  in  after  years  when  Bar 
Kappara  sought  the  rabbinical  office  he  was  curtly 
refused.30 


254      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

The  opposition  he  had  to  encounter  in  the  San- 
hedrin  to  his  legislative  reforms  was  strong.  When 
he  sought  to  lessen  the  rigors  of  the  Sabbath  ob- 
servance, the  nationalists  told  him  : 

"Thou  permitted  what  thy  ancestors  prohibited."31 

The  prince  met  the  objection  boldly: 

"Hezekiah  destroyed  the  brazen  serpent  that 
Moses  made  in  the  desert  because  the  people  of  his 
day  adored  it  as  a  god.  There  were  other  worthy 
kings  and  destroyers  of  idols  who  feared  to  destroy 
that  serpent.  Hezekiah's  merit,  then,  is  special  to 
him  alone.  So  is  my  work  peculiar  to  me,  and  I  fulfil 
what  my  ancestors  began."  32 

The  nationalists  took  another  course.  They  pro- 
posed changes  more  radical  than  those  of  the  prince. 
They  suggested  the  emancipation  and  admission  to 
Jewish  citizenship  of  the  serfs,  the  Nethinim,  who 
had  been  a  subordinate  body  for  centuries.'3  The 
prince  opposed  it  on  the  ground  of  expediency. 
Another  proposition  submitted  was  to  declare  that 
the  Davidic  descent  of  those  who  had  remained  in 
Palestine  was  purer  than  that  of  the  children  of  the 
captivity  in  Babylon.  This  was  in  keeping  with  the 
narrow  tribal  sentiment  which  would  identify  Jewish 
faith  with  Palestine.  It  also  aimed  at  the  title  of 
Juda;  for  his  ancestor,  Hillel,  was  one  of  the  cap- 
tivity.    The  prince  opposed  it  with  all  his  power. 

"You  would  put  thorns  in  my  eyes,"  he  told  the 
Rabbis,  and  they  yielded  to  his  will.34 

In  a  more  friendly  fashion  a  famous  Rabbi,  Jona- 
than ben  Amran,  conveyed  a  rebuke  to  the  princely 
president.      During   a   year   of   famine,   the   latter 


RABBI   JUDA   THE    PRINCE  255 

opened  his  grain  stores  to  all  students  of  the  law. 
He  forbade  the  Men  of  Earth,  the  ignorant  rabble, 
to  enter  with  them.  Jonathan  made  his  way  in  dis- 
guise and  said : 

"Master,  give  me  to  eat,  for  I  hunger." 

And  the  prince  asked,  ' '  Hast  thou  read  the  law  ? ' ' 

And  Jonathan  said,  "I  have  not." 

"Hast  thou  read  the  Mishnah?  " 

"No." 

"Then  how  can  I  feed  thee  who  hast  not  fed  thine 
own  people? " 

"Master,"  said  Jonathan,  "thou  wouldst  feed  a 
dog  or  a  raven.  Feed  me  likewise,  for  I,  too,  am  a 
creature  of  God." 

And  the  prince  gave  him  alms.  But  when  Jona- 
than had  gone  the  prince  repented  and  said : 

"Woe  is  me!    I  have  fed  a  Man  of  Earth." 

But  one  of  his  disciples  told  him  it  was  Jonathan, 
his  disciple,  who  would  fain  conceal  his  learning. 
The  prince  changed  his  mind  when  he  heard  this 
and  he  said : 

"Now  let  all  men  enter  my  stores  and  be  fed, 
for  it  is  not  for  man  to  discriminate  between  God's 
creatures  for  his  own  caprice."  3b 

In  other  ways  he  showed  a  kindly  temper,  unlike 
the  character  which  the  hostile  critics  of  his  power 
gave  him. 

He  was  willing  to  learn  from  his  own  pupils  and 
acknowledged  it  freely. 

"I  have  learned  much,"  he  said,  "from  my 
teachers,  more  from  my  equals,  but  most  of  all  from 
my  pupils."  " 


256      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

When  the  king,  Artaban,37  sent  him  a  jewel  as  a 
gift,  the  prince  returned  a  scroll  of  Scripture.  The 
king  was  surprised  and  sent  him  a  message: 

"I  have  given  thee  a  jewel  of  price,  and  thou 
sendest  me  a  thing  of  less  value  than  the  case  that 
holds  it."39 

"Nay,"  the  prince  replied,  "thou  hast  sent  me  a 
gift  which  I  must  guard,  but  I  have  sent  thee  one 
which  will  guard  thee,  as  it  is  written,  'It  will  guide 
thee  wherever  thou  goest.'  "  3' 

With  the  members  of  his  race  who  professed  their 
belief  in  Christ  as  the  Messiah,  Juda  maintained 
friendly  relations.  He  evidently  regarded  them  as 
countrymen  and  brothers  in  the  Law  of  Moses.  It 
is  recorded  that  at  his  table  he  asked  once  a  Chris- 
tian friend  to  say  the  blessing  over  the  wine,  which, 
among  the  Jews,  was  regarded  as  a  high  honor  to  a 
guest.  So  high  was  it  that  by  custom  a  fine  of 
forty  pieces  had  to  be  paid  as  an  offering  by  any 
guest  who  declined  the  duty  offered.  The  blessing 
included  an  acknowledgment  of  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision which  had  ceased,  at  least  as  an  obligation, 
among  the  Christian  Jews.  The  prince  then  coupled 
his  invitation  with  the  assurance  that  he  would  pay 
the  fine  himself  if  his  guest  had  any  scruples  about 
repeating  the  form  of  prayer.  The  Christian  assured 
him  that  he  had  none.40 

The  relations  between  Juda  and  the  Roman  rulers 
of  Palestine  must  not  be  passed  over.  The  Talmud 
represents  him  as  holding  long  conferences  with  the 
emperor  Antoninus.  It  is  impossible  to  say  if  he 
really  met  the  emperor,  and  the  hyperbole  of  the 


RABBI   JUDA   THE    PRINCE  257 

story  cannot  be  reduced  to  historic  accuracy,41  but  it 
is  so  interesting  as  a  specimen  of  Jewish  philosophy 
at  the  time  that  we  give  the  dialogue. 

Antoninus  said  to  the  master:  " 

"It  is  easy  for  man  to  evade  judgment  for  sin  after 
death.  The  body  can  plead,  'It  is  the  soul  that 
hath  sinned,  for  since  it  left  me  I  have  no  more  de- 
sire than  a  stone.'  The  soul  can  say,  'Since  it  left 
the  body  it  is  stainless,  sinless,  and  free. ' 

The  master  replied : 

' '  I  will  answer  thee  by  a  parable.  A  king  placed 
two  guards  in  his  garden,  one  blind  and  one  lame. 
The  lame  man  said  to  the  blind,  'I  see  much  fair 
fruit ;  carry  me  to  it  and  we  will  eat.'  So  the  blind 
bore  the  lame  man  to  the  tree  and  they  stole  the 
fruit  and  ate  it.  And  later  the  king  came  and 
saw  that  the  fruit  was  gone,  and  he  asked  the  guards 
where  the  fruit  was  he  had  put  under  their  care. 
And  the  lame  man  asked,  'Could  I  walk  to  steal  it? ' 
and  the  blind  man  said,  'Have  I  eyes  to  see  it?' 
Then  the  king  put  the  lame  man  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  blind  man  and  he  punished  them  as  one  man. 
Even  so  will  the  Lord,  blessed  be  His  name,  put 
again  the  soul  within  the  body  and  judge  them  to- 
gether as  they  have  deserved  when  together."  " 

Again  Antoninus  asked  the  Master: 

"Why  does  the  sun  rise  in  the  east?"  and  the 
master  told  him  that  if  it  rose  in  the  west  he  might 
ask  the  same  question.44 

The  emperor  then    asked    advice    on   a  personal 

matter.     He  told  him  he  desired  two  things  from 

the  senate,   but  that    they    would    only   grant  one 
17 


258      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

request.  He  desired  the  succession  of  his  son  se- 
cured, and  also  that  the  province  of  Tiberias  should 
be  made  a  Roman  community.  The  master  called 
two  men.  He  made  one  mount  the  shoulders  of  the 
other,  and  then  gave  him  a  dove.  He  next  bade  the 
lower  man  tell  the  other  to  release  the  bird.  An- 
toninus comprehended  the  hint  and  said : 

"I  will  ask  the  senate  to  recognize  my  son,  and 
then  bid  my  son  to  enroll  Tiberias  as  a  province."  " 

Another  anecdote  tells  how  the  emperor  sent  the 
master  a  sack  of  gold  covered  with  wheat  each  day, 
and  the  Master  said  to  him : 

"I  need  it  not;  I  have  grain  and  gold  enough." 

And  Antoninus  bade  him  take  it  for  his  children, 
that  they  might  give  it  in  tribute  to  his  own  chil- 
dren.46    The  suggestion  in  this  tale  is  manifest. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  policy  of  Juda  in  the 
Sanhedrin  was  mainly  directed  to  making  the  yoke 
of  the  law  lighter  on  the  people  and  loosening  the 
bonds  which  held  them  in  Palestine.  It  was  not  in 
his  power,  had  he  willed  it,  to  stem  the  tide  of  emi- 
gration which  was  carrying  the  Jewish  race  away 
from  its  ancestral  home.  The  superior  profits  of 
foreign  trade,  made  easy  by  the  extension  of  the 
Roman  dominion  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Atlan- 
tic, drew  keen  Hebrew  emigrants  away.  The  op- 
pression at  home  which  followed  the  campaigns  of 
Hadrian  stimulated  the  movement.  The  Jews 
streamed  from  their  native  land  in  the  days  of  Juda, 
as  the  dense  population  of  Europe  has  poured  across 
the  Atlantic  in  our  own  day.  The  patriotic  senti- 
ments of  the  prince,  his  faith  in  the  future  of  his 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  259 

people,  made  him  seek  every  means  to  prevent  the 
scattered  children  of  Israel  from  losing  their  nation- 
ality and  being  lost  among  other  races  as  the  king- 
dom of  Israel  had  melted  away  in  the  old  days. 

To  this  end  it  seemed  to  him  the  most  effective 
means  would  be  to  make  a  literature  for  the  Jewish 
people.  Down  to  his  time,  though  study  and  mental 
activity  were  pre-eminent  in  Juda,  little  attention 
had  been  paid  to  literature  or  written  thought. 
Writing  was  reserved  for  the  sacred  Scriptures. 
The  interpretations  of  the  law,  the  sayings  of  the 
wise,  the  story  of  the  people  since  the  captivity, 
were  handed  down  by  word  of  mouth  from  genera- 
tion to  generation.  The  schools  of  the  Rabbis  in 
Palestine  had  preserved  the  wisdom  and  history  of 
the  past  by  careful  repetition.  The  Jews  of  other 
lands  near  could  come  there  to  share  in  them  as 
Hillel  had  come  from  Babylon,  but  with  the  exodus 
that  was  going  on  there  was  small  likelihood  that 
the  schools  themselves  could  continue  long.  It  was 
harder,  too,  to  come  from  Rome  and  Cadiz  and 
India  and  the  other  lands  to  which  the  Jews  were 
now  moving  than  from  Egypt  or  Babylon. 

The  prince  determined  to  collect  the  whole  body  of 
oral  Hebrew  lore  while  there  was  yet  time  and  secure 
its  perpetuity  by  committing  it  to  writing.  To  that 
task  his  life  was  devoted,  and  by  it  he  deserves  to 
be  regarded  as  a  foremost  agent  in  the  marvellous 
preservation  of  nationality  without  a  country  which 
has  marked  the  Hebrew  race  from  all  others. 

The  work  which  he  thus  compiled,  with  the  help 
of  the  numerous  scribes  whom  his  wealth  enabled 


26o      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

him  to  employ,  is  known  as  the  Mishnah.47  Its  main 
object  is  the  interpretation  of  the  Law  of  Moses,  but 
its  character  as  the  record  of  the  sayings  and  doings 
of  so  many  generations  gives  it  the  nature  of  a  rude 
encyclopedia.  It  deals  with  the  whole  system  of 
human  moral  action;  it  touches  on  the  sciences,  and 
the  events  of  successive  generations.  When  Rabbi 
Juda  began  his  task  there  was  no  Hebrew  literature. 
The  Bible  was  not  within  the  reach  of  the  mass  of 
the  people.  The  ceremonial  practices  of  the  law 
were  the  greater  part  of  their  worship.  They  had 
to  learn  practically  that  the  God  of  the  world  is  not 
confined  to  temples  made  by  hands,  nor  His  favor 
bounded  by  the  narrow  limits  of  Palestine.  That  the 
knowledge  of  the  law  could  be  spread  among  them, 
it  needed  more  than  the  gatherings  of  a  few  learned 
men  in  Jerusalem  or  Yamnai:  it  needed  literature, 
and  as  the  founder  of  that  literature  Rabbi  Juda  the 
Prince  deserves  a  place  among  the  greatest  of  his 
people. 

It  was  a  colossal  task  for  a  man  to  gather  up  from 
a  hundred  sources  the  traditions  of  centuries,  to 
compare  and  systematize  the  thousands  of  often 
contradictory  decisions  that  had  been  handed  down 
from  famous  doctors,  to  form  them  into  a  consist- 
ent whole.  Juda  had  no  native  model  in  his  task. 
A  few,  like  Akibah,  had  written  some  decisions,  but 
there  was  no  model  to  guide  him.  That  his  work  is 
not  like  the  literary  monuments  of  Greece  or  Rome 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  Yet  it  has  a  style  and 
merits  of  its  own  of  unmistakable  worth.  Its  lan- 
guage is  the  purest  Hebrew,  and  in  spite  of  the  mass 


RABBI   JUDA    THE    PRINCE  26 1 

of  subjects  treated,  its  style  is  uniform  and  terse. 
Like  other  Semitic  races,  the  Jews  liked  to  express 
their  thoughts  in  short,  half  -  enigmatic  phrases. 
Parable  and  simile  and  proverb  were  the  common 
form  of  Jewish  speech.  That  it  left  room  for  study 
to  the  listener,  and  called  his  mental  activity  to 
work  before  its  meaning  could  be  clear,  was  regarded 
as  a  gain  rather  than  a  loss.  The  Talmud  was  com- 
posed according  to  this  idea.  It  was  to  furnish  food 
for  thought  to  others,  to  be  elucidated  and  com- 
mented on  by  successive  generations,  and  so  it  is  no 
cause  for  surprise  that  to  the  modern  student,  be  he 
Jew  or  Gentile,  its  meaning  is  often  hard  to  deter- 
mine. Still  no  one  can  fail  to  admire  its  wide  scope, 
its  classic  language,  its  poetic  form,  and  its  grasp  of 
the  varied  forms  of  human  thought. 

A  commentary  to  the  Mishnah  known  as  the  Gem- 
ara  48  was  begun  by  the  Rabbis  in  Babylon  within 
the  lifetime  of  the  prince,  and  the  two  combined  are 
since  known  as  the  Talmud,  or  Babylonian  Talmud. 
A  somewhat  similar  work  was  later  undertaken  in 
the  Aramaic  dialect  of  Palestine,  and  is  known  as 
the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  but  neither  in  style  nor 
matter  can  it  rank  with  the  Babylonian  Talmud. 

Though  the  Mishnah  purports  to  be  a  summary  of 
Hebrew  law,  it  has  no  resemblance  to  a  legal  treatise 
in  modern  ideas.  The  Jewish  conception  of  law  was 
indeed  wholly  different  from  that  of  the  nations  of 
the  West.  It  was  no  mere  collection  of  edicts  or 
decrees  of  kings  or  senates.  It  was  the  rule  of  hu- 
man life  in  all  its  manifold  activities;  for  every  hu- 
man act  has  a  moral  character  in  the  divine  system, 


262      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

of  which  a  part  was  directly  revealed  to  the  Hebrew 
law  giver.  The  constitutional  provisions  which 
made  the  interpretations  of  the  majority  of  the 
doctors  of  Israel  a  part  of  that  law  broadened  out  its 
fabric  to  almost  boundless  proportions  in  the  course 
of  ages.  The  cultivation  of  the  fields,  the  care  of 
domestic  animals,  the  preparation  of  food  and  cloth- 
ing, the  dwellings  of  men  and  beasts,  the  care  of 
health,  of  personal  cleanliness,  of  social  intercourse, 
and  myriad  similar  points  foreign  to  our  notions  of 
legislation  were  discussed  and  regulated  by  solemn 
law  among  the  people  of  Israel.  To  cast  this  law 
into  a  literary  form  was  the  colossal  work  of  Rabbi 
Juda. 

It  is  cast  in  systematic  form,  but  the  system  is 
widely  different  from  the  divisions  and  subdivisions 
of  modern  science.  The  Rabbis  had  found  the  need 
of  system  in  their  teaching,  even  when  the  body  of 
the  law  was  preserved  by  oral  tradition,  but  their 
system  was  formed  on  the  association  of  kindred 
ideas  around  a  particular  easily  remembered  subject. 
The  cultivation  of  memory  was  of  the  highest  im- 
portance when  decisions  had  to  be  handed  down  by 
repetition  alone.  The  highest  praise  for  a  teacher 
was  that  his  mind  was  a  cistern  which  lost  no  drop 
of  the  words  poured  into  it.  Thus  the  classification 
followed  in  the  Talmud  is  largely  based  on  a  mne- 
monic system.  The  subjects  associated  in  a  section 
seem  often  as  incongruous  as  the  union  of  "Papal 
Country  Seats  and  the  Bite  of  the  Tarantula  by  a 
modern  Italian  writer.  To  the  Jews  of  the  day, 
however,  these  associations  seemed  perfectly  natural 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  263 

as  aids  to  memory,  and  their  perpetuation  in  the 
Talmud  was  in  keeping  with  old  habits  of  thought. 

There  are  six  divisions  of  the  whole  Mishnah, 
each  bearing  a  name  indicative  of  its  subject- 
matter.49  These  are  subdivided  into  a  varying 
number  of  Books  similarly  named  by  keywords. 
The  Books  are  divided  into  sections  by  numbers 
only.  The  general  names  of  the  six  divisions  are 
Seeds  (Zeraini),  Feasts  {Aloed),  Women  {Nashim), 
Wrongs  {Nezikin),  Consecrations  (Kodaskim),  and 
Purifications  {TaJtarotJi). 

The  subject  of  the  first  division  is  the  common 
life  of  the  mass  of  the  people  who  in  Palestine  were 
mostly  dependent  on  the  cultivation  of  the  soil. 
To  the  cultivator,  seed-time  and  harvest  are  the 
chief  epochs  of  the  year  and  "Seed  "  the  first  requi- 
site of  his  work.  The  eleven  books  which  make  up 
the  division  bear  the  names,  Blessings,  Cultivation, 
Uncertain  Things,  Blending,  Sabbath  Year,  Ablu- 
tions, Tithes,  Second  offerings,  Dough,  Birds,  and 
First  Fruits,  respectively. 

The  first  prescribes  the  numerous  forms  of  prayer 
to  be  used  in  ordinary  life,  and  is  subdivided  into 
nine  sections.  The  book  "Cultivation'  describes 
the  times  and  places  for  sowing  and  reaping  and  the 
provision  for  the  needy  which  the  agriculturist  was 
bound  to  leave  at  harvest-time.  "Uncertainty" 
deals  with  the  subject  of  when  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
are  fit  for  human  use  by  the  Mosaic  law.  ' '  Blending' ' 
prescribes  the  manner  of  crossing  plants  and  ani- 
mals, and  of  woolen  and  linen  in  dress.  The  ten 
sections   of   the   "Sabbath    Year"    deal    with    the 


264      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

regulations  of  periodic  fallowing  prescribed  in  Deuter- 
onomy. "Ablutions"  in  eleven  sections  describes 
the  offerings  due  to  the  Aaronic  priesthood  from  cul- 
tivated fields.  "Tithes,"  in  five  sections,  prescribes 
the  amount  and  conditions  of  the  "tenths"  of  the 
fields  and  flocks  which  had  to  be  paid  for  the  suste- 
nance of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  "Second  Offerings,"  in 
five  sections,  deals  with  the  portion  of  the  harvest 
which  had  to  be  eaten  in  Jerusalem,  and  "Dough," 
in  three  sections,  speaks  of  the  offerings  to  the  priests 
on  account  of  bread-making.  "Buds"  gives  the 
rules  for  determining  at  what  age  fruit  of  trees  should 
be  held  fit  for  human  food,  and  "First  Fruits  "  tells 
themethods  of  harvesting  and  using  the  first  products. 
The  second  division,  "Feasts,"  deals  with  the 
festival  and  fast  days  prescribed  in  the  law,  their 
mode  of  observance,  and  other  particulars.  "Sab- 
bath," its  first  book,  describes  the  law  of  observance 
of  the  seventh  day  of  rest,  in  twenty-four  sections, 
and  "Erubin,"  the  second  book,  continues  it  in  ten 
sections  as  to  the  distance  of  travelling  on  that 
day.  The  third  book,  "Passover,"  prescribes  the 
observances  required  for  the  passover.  The  fourth, 
"Shekels,"  the  tax  to  be  paid  by  the  people.  The 
three  following  books  give  the  rules  for  observing 
the  other  great  festivals,  namely,  Atonement,  the 
Tabernacles,  and  New  Year.  "Festivals,"  the 
seventh  book,  gives  general  laws  for  all  feasts,  as 
the  ninth,  "Fasts,"  does  for  all  days  of  penance. 
The  tenth  regulates  the  observance  of  Purim,  the 
eleventh  that  of  half-holidays,  and  the  twelfth  that 
of  the  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem. 


'      RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  265 

The  third  division  of  the  Mishnah  deals  with  the 
relations  between  the  sexes:  Marriage,  divorce, 
dowries,  engagements,  rights  of  married  people,  and 
their  duties.      Its  books  are: 

1.  "Sisters-in-law,"  referring  to  the  rule  requiring 
brothers  to  marry  such  in  case  of  widowhood.  2. 
Marriage  contracts.  3.  Vows.  4.  Abstainer,  the 
continence  required  of  married  persons.  5.  Adul- 
tery.    6.   Divorce.     7.  Sanctifications. 

The  fourth  division,  "Wrongs,"  has  ten  books. 
The  "First  Gate"  deals  with  damages  for  offences, 
the  "Second  Gate,"  with  borrowing,  renting,  giving 
in  trust,  and  articles  found  by  the  way.  The  "Last 
Gate"  gives  the  laws  of  deeds,  gifts,  and  inheritance. 
The  fourth  book,  "Council,"  the  administration  of 
the  law,  the  duties  of  Judges,  and  the  constitution 
of  legal  courts.  The  fifth  describes  the  various 
legal  penalties  for  crimes.  The  sixth  treats  of  oaths, 
their  nature,  and  form.  The  seventh,  "Common 
Law,"  of  the  weight  to  be  attached  to  precedence 
and  usage  in  the  courts.  The  eighth,  "Idolatry' 
and  its  punishment.  The  ' '  Books  of  the  Fathers  ' '  is 
made  up  of  moral  precepts  and  maxims  of  the  sages 
of  Israel.  "Decisions  "  is  the  tenth  book,  and  is  a 
record  of  such  by  various  distinguished  judges. 
"Consecrations,"  the  fifth  division,  contains  eleven 
books:  namely,  offerings  of  animals,  offerings  of 
fruits  and  liquids,  diet  and  food.  The  "First- 
Born,"  prescribing  the  action  to  be  followed  in  the 
matter  of  first  births,  both  in  human  beings  and 
animals.  "Values,"  that  is,  the  money  price  to  be 
paid    for   redemptions    of    the    former   under    the 


266      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Levitical  law.  "Exchanges,"  how  to  act  in  the 
matter  of  substitution  of  profane  for  consecrated 
animals  under  the  same  law.  'Destruction,"  how 
the  penalty  of  death  may  be  incurred  and  in  what 
cases  it  may  be  commuted.  "Malfeasance,"  pre- 
scribing penalties  for  the  theft  of  sacred  things. 
"Sacrifice,"  describing  the  rites  of  worship  in  the 
Temple.  "Measures,"  a  minute  description  of  the 
Temple,  its  site,  buildings,  treasures,  guards,  and 
pilgrim  services  therein.  The  last  book,  "Nests," 
relates  to  the  doves  and  other  birds  prescribed  as 
offerings  for  the  poor  among  the  people. 

The  sixth  Mishnah  division,  "Purifications,"60 
embraces  twelve  books  named,  respectively,  "Ves- 
sels," "Tents,"  "Skin  Diseases,"  "the  Red  Cow" 
(i.  e.,  the  sacrifice  of  that  animal  prescribed  in  Num- 
bers), Purifications,  of  impurities  in  detail,  "Wells," 
waters  used  in  purification  of  men  and  things. 
"Separation,"  of  married  people  at  certain  periods. 
"Capacities,"  objects  which  make  other  things  un- 
clean by  contact.  * '  Fluxes, "  "  the  Bath, "  "  Hands  ' 
and  "Stalks  "  or  "Shells."  All  of  these  deal  with 
the  impurities  mentioned  in  the  Mosaic  law.  They 
describe  their  nature,  how  they  may  be  incurred  by 
men  or  inanimate  objects,  how  the  uncleanness  may 
be  removed  by  purification,  and  the  various  forms  of 
the  purifications  themselves. 

Wide  is  the  usage  of  subjects  embraced  by  these 
heads.  They  are  far  from  giving  the  full  contents 
of  the  Mishnah.  It  is  the  record  of  the  thoughts  of 
the  Jewish  race,  not  only  on  these  points  of  law  and 
doctrine,  but  on  all  subjects  in  any  way  connected 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  267 

with  them.  The  Rabbis  wove  their  judgments  and 
thoughts  into  fables  and  similes,  like  all  Easterners. 
They  found  hidden  meanings  in  the  words  and 
actions  appearing  indifferent  in  themselves,  and  they 
delighted  in  exercising  their  minds  in  such  researches. 
The  whole  life  of  the  people  finds  illustrations  in  the 
anecdotes  or  parables  in  which  learned  Rabbis  de- 
cided how  many  yards  it  was  lawful  to  walk  on  the 
Sabbath  or  at  what  age  the  fruit  of  the  olive  might 
be  pressed  for  oil.  If  Akibah  could  draw  countless 
precepts  from  every  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
as  his  colleagues  said,  it  passes  calculation  to  guess 
what  subjects  might  fall  within  the  scope  of  the 
whole  body  of  the  Law. 

The  colossal  proportions  of  the  task  impress  us 
very  strongly  even  at  present,  but  its  difficulty  was 
enormously  greater  than  we  can  at  first  sight  com- 
prehend in  an  age  when  literary  composition  was  in 
its  infancy.  The  task  of  the  Athenian  prince  who 
collected  and  edited  the  scattered  ballads  that  under 
the  names  of  Iliad  and  Odysey  have  been  the  founda- 
tion of  all  our  Western  literature  seems  small,  in- 
deed, beside  that  of  Rabbi  Juda  in  Palestine.  He 
had  a  far  wider  range  of  subjects,  which  called  for 
close  investigation  in  every  part,  not  the  ballad 
history  of  a  famous  campaign,  as  his  task.  He  put 
a  system  all  his  own  into  the  mass  to  which  he  thus 
gave  literary  form.  He  dwelt  not  much  upon  pre- 
cise dogmas  and  took  little  heed  of  the  hair-splitting 
casuistry  of  the  meaning  of  words  and  laws  which 
other  Rabbis  delighted  in.  He  did  not  enter  much 
into  metaphysical  speculations  on   abstract   points. 


268      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

His  object  is  apparent:  it  is  to  record  all  that  he 
could  gather  of  the  experience  of  the  past  of  his 
race,  which  might  bear  on  the  conduct  of  his  own 
and  future  generations  of  his  people.  The  text  of 
Scripture  itself  is  the  framework  of  his  compilation. 
The  Word  of  God  to  him  was  the  unchangeable  Law. 
The  comments  of  men,  even  the  wisest,  were  but 
partial  elucidations  of  its  full  meaning.  Those  he 
collected  were  to  guide  man  in  his  path  through  life 
practically  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave,  to  direct  his 
aspirations  and  the  work  of  his  mind  and  hands,  his 
spiritual  and  intellectual  as  well  as  his  material  life. 
His  planting  and  reaping,  his  eating  and  sleeping, 
his  joys  and  his  sorrows,  all  are  regulated  by  definite 
laws,  and  in  all  faith  recognizes  protection  from  on 
high  and  the  rewards  and  chastisements  that  fall 
from  the  Father's  hand  for  human  action.  For  this 
reason,  the  Talmud  goes  into  minute  details  of  daily 
life.  It  recalls  the  ways  and  the  men  of  former  days 
and  shows  how  some  lived  after  the  heart  of  God 
Himself,  and  how  far  others  failed  to  do  so.  It  tells 
of  hopes  that  were  realized  and  hopes  that  failed 
among  the  people,  of  its  errors  and  its  true  judg- 
ments. It  discusses  the  meaning  of  the  text  of 
Scripture  itself,  and  points  out  what  remained  for 
further  analysis  and  comment.  Its  matter  is  no  less 
than  the  material,  intellectual,  and  moral  life  of  a 
people. 

That  in  his  work  the  Prince  had  thoroughly  en- 
tered into  the  spirit  of  the  Hebrew  race  has  been 
proved  by  the  reception  accorded  to  it.  In  his  own 
lifetime  the  Gemara  was  commenced  as  a  commen- 


RABBI   JUDA   THE   PRINCE  269 

tary  on  it  in  Babylon,  and  the  two  have  since  been 
combined  into  the  Talmud  as  the  literary  and  moral 
guide  of  the  Jewish  race.  The  comments  on  the 
Talmud  since  are  beyond  reckoning.  Indeed,  the 
intellect  of  the  race  in  literary  work  mainly  centred 
around  the  work  of  Rabbi  Juda.  In  widely  sepa- 
rated lands  the  scattered  children  of  Israel  pondered 
over  its  pages,  as,  in  earlier  days,  they  had  crowded 
the  schools  of  the  Rabbis.  Its  spirit  kept  their 
faith  living,  and  strengthened  them  to  endure  perse- 
cution. Neither  Jewish  history  nor  Jewish  religion 
can  be  understood  without  a  knowledge  of  the  Tal- 
mud. At  times  the  reverence  which  surrounded  it, 
made  the  reading  of  it  of  even  greater  merit  than 
the  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  Through  centuries 
the  race  survived  as  a  dweller  in  lands  not  its  own, 
as  the  subjects  of  alien  masters.  It  was  not  bodily 
strength  or  endurance  that  carried  them  through, 
but  the  intellectual  force  which  they  drew  from  their 
literature.  In  study  the  Jew  forgot  his  slavery ;  he 
recognized  a  higher  power  than  that  of  the  tempo- 
rary oppressor,  and  he  lightened  his  load  by  the 
hope  of  a  brighter  future.  When  all  around  threat- 
ened destruction,  he  asked  the  advice  of  the  men  of 
old  from  the  pages  of  the  Talmud.  Their  answer 
was,  "Learn,  endure,  and  pray."  These  counsels 
have  been  the  staff  which  supported  the  Jewish  race 
from  Hadrian's  to  our  own  time.  The  remarkable 
national  existence  which  has  been  preserved  for 
eighteen  centuries  without  a  country  may  fairly  be 
said  to  be  due  in  great  part  to  the  Talmud. 

Were  it  not  for  the  Talmud,  the  spirit  of  which 


270      JEWISH    FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

permeated  the  Jewish  heart,  the  Jew  could  never 
have  manifested  his  unshaken  fidelity  to  the  Word 
of  God.  Without  the  Talmud,  the  power  of  which 
fortified  his  soul,  the  Jew  could  not  have  endured 
his  ages  of  martyrdom.  Without  the  Talmud,  the 
knowledge  of  which  gave  him  ever-increasing  faith, 
the  Jew  could  hardly  have  withstood  the  tempta- 
tions to  the  renunciation  of  his  religion.  Without 
the  Talmud,  the  light  of  which  illumined  the  dark- 
ness of  nigh  two  thousand  years'  wanderings,  the 
Jew  could  not  to-day  show  a  history  which  is  the 
grandest  expression  of  tragedy  the  world  has  seen. 

Where  else  shall  we  find  a  tragedy  the  scenes  of 
which  are  so  varied ;  the  time  of  which  has  lasted 
so  long;  the  actors  of  which  included  so  many 
heroes,  kings,  sages,  men  and  women,  old  and 
young,  who  rose  again,  day  after  day,  night  after 
night,  only  to  face  the  same  hisses,  the  same  jeers, 
the  same  curses,  and  to  meet  the  same  hand  that 
struck  them  to  the  ground? 

If  the  Jews  have  survived  the  atrocious  treatment 
of  their  fellow-men,  have  borne  the  moments  of  sor- 
row and  despair  in  the  dark  ages,  it  is  because  they 
had  faith ;  because  they  read  the  written  word  and 
believed  its  promises.  And  the  book  that  contained 
the  elucidation  and  reassertion  of  these  promises  was 
the  Talmud,  the  foundation  of  which  was  laid  by 
Rabbi  Juda,  whose  memory  will  last  as  long  as  the 
Hebrew  language." 

The  prince  did  not  neglect  the  interests  of  his 
own  house  in  the  ardor  of  literary  work.  He  steadily 
increased  the  powers  of  the  patriarchate  among  his 


RABBI   JUDA   THE    PRINCE  27 1 

countrymen.  Down  to  Hillel,  the  president  and 
Judge  in  the  Sanhedrin  had  been  nearly  equal  in 
power,  and  both  depended  for  office  on  the  will  of 
the  majority  in  that  body.  The  superior  authority 
of  the  patriarch  had  been  established  by  Hillel. 
Rabbi  Juda  made  himself  practically  the  master  of 
the  national  council.  He  claimed  the  sole  right  of 
selecting  its  members.  He  decreed  its  decisions, 
and  when  near  his  end  he  named  not  only  his  own 
successor,  but  also  the  Judge  and  Lector.  He  for- 
bade, in  the  name  of  the  law  itself,  any  one  to  set 
up  as  a  Messiah  henceforth. 

"Read  his  name  Liar,  not  Star  of  Jacob,"  was  his 
sentence  on  the  memory  of  Bar  Kochba.6* 

The  power  which  the  Sanhedrin  had  long  exer- 
cised over  the  Jewish  people  thus  became  centred 
in  the  person  of  Juda  the  Prince.  The  patriarchs 
who  succeeded  him  were  recognized  by  the  Roman 
authorities  as  pontiffs  and  heads  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple throughout  the  empire.  Taxes  were  laid  on  the 
various  Jewish  congregations  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  patriarchate  and  enforced  by  the  Roman  officials. 
Juda  himself  was  a  great  man  in  Syria.  Foreign 
kings  sent  him  messages  and  gifts,  and  he  often  de- 
clined the  latter  in  regal  fashion.  The  intercourse 
between  the  Jewish  Rabbi  and  the  Roman  emperor 
has  been  already  noted.  The  dignity  thus  attached 
to  the  office  of  patriarch  was  continued  for  two 
hundred  years  after  the  death  of  Juda.  The  Em- 
peror Julian  even  addressed  the  Jewish  patriarch 
Hillel  II.  as  "brother  "  when  he  was  planning  the  re- 
building of  the  Temple  at   Jerusalem.     The  office 


272      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

was  finally  abolished  by  Theodosius  the  Great  in  425. 
Before  it  ended  the  House  of  Hillel  had  enjoyed  a 
life  greater  than  falls  to  most  kingly  dynasties." 

The  family  of  Rabbi  Juda  consisted  of  only  two 
sons,  Gamaliel  and  Simon,  and  a  daughter,  the  wife 
of  Bar  Elasa.  When  advanced  in  life  and  a  widower 
he  sought  in  marriage  the  widow  of  his  old  opponent, 
Eleazar  ben  Yohai,  and,  with  all  his  wealth  and  honor, 
had  to  undergo  the  humiliation  of  a  refusal.  The 
widow  declared  she  would  regard  herself  as  degraded 
by  an  alliance  with  the  patriarch.  He  found  another 
wife,  however,  whom  he  recommended  to  the  care 
of  his  children  in  his  last  instructions.  His  life  was 
prolonged  to  an  advanced  age  though  for  many  years 
he  suffered  from  continuous  ill-health.  The  Talmud 
says  he  could  only  sleep  the  time  of  sixty  respira- 
tions in  his  later  days,64  and  it  records  how  Mar 
Samuel,  whom  he  had  long  excluded  from  the 
council,  was  called  to  relieve  him  from  an  affection 
of  the  eyes.  He  had  to  change  his  abode  to  the 
mountain  town  of  Sephoris,  where  the  last  seventeen 
years  of  his  life  were  spent.  Constant  pain  increased 
his  natural  irritability  to  a  marked  degree,  and  the 
shadow  of  opposition  to  his  will  drove  him  to  fury. 
Yet  withal  he  was  placable  when  his  passion  abated 
and  the  love  of  the  people  surrounded  him.  The 
people  of  Sephoris  were  said  to  have  vowed  to  kill 
whoever  should  bring  the  tidings  of  the  death  of 
their  adored  prince. 

When  his  end  approached  he  named  his  successor 
in  autocratic  style. 

"Gamaliel,  my  son,  shall  be  prince  when  I  am 


RABBI    JUDA   THE    PRINCE  273 

dead.  Simon,  my  son,  reader,  and  my  disciple, 
Hama  bar  'Haninah,  judge  in  the  Sanhedrin."  Let 
this  be  opened  thirty  days  after  my  death  and  let 
there  be  no  mourning  in  the  towns." 

He  gave  instructions  in  the  duties  and  rights  of 
his  position  to  Gamaliel  and  especially  advised  him 
to  rule  the  Rabbis  with  a  strong  hand. 

"Be  strict  with  the  disciples,"  was  his  warning  to 
his  successor,  which  the  latter  faithfully  carried  out." 
His  other  instructions  were  brief  to  his  sons. 

"  Honor  your  mother.  Make  her  happy,  make  no 
change  in  your  household.  Joseph  of  Kaipha  and 
Simon  of  Efrath,  who  served  me  in  life  will  arrange 
my  body  for  burial." 

It  was  in  the  year  220  that  the  prince  wras  gathered 
to  his  fathers. 

His  death  was  widely  regretted  by  the  Jewish 
people,  who  recognized  in  him  a  representative  of 
the  royal  house,  and  admired  his  liberality  and  in- 
dustry. With  all  his  ambition  of  power,  Rabbi  Juda 
showed  no  desire  to  amass  wealth.  He  regarded 
himself  as  beyond  the  need  of  treasures  and  he  dis- 
tributed freely. 

"Lord  of  the  world,"  was  his  exclamation  on  his 
death-bed,  "Thou  knowest  I  have  worked  both  my 
hands  for  the  law  but  have  not  used  even  a  finger 
to  gain  temporal  wealth."  It  was  no  unfitting 
boast.  When  the  rivalries  of  the  moment  had 
passed,  the  Jewish  race  recognized  the  merits  of  the 
prince  ungrudgingly. 

"He    it    was    who    brought    forth    the    Law    for 

Israel,"  was  the  common   sentence.      The   famous 
18 


274      JEWISH   FORERUNNERS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

Maimonides,  who  codified  the  Talmudic  laws  a 
thousand  years  later,  did  not  hesitate  to  say  of  him : 
"He  was  alone  in  his  time  and  generation.  In 
him  dwelt  all  the  highest  qualities,  and  those  of  his 
time  styled  him  Our  Master,  the  Holy  One."  68 


NOTES 


CHAPTER   I 

1.  See  Talmud  Babli,  Synhedrin  5  ;  Talmud  Jerusalemi, 
Khilaim  9;  the  same,  Talmud  Kethuboth,  div.  12,  and  Mid- 
rash  Rabba,  Genesis,  div.  33. 

2.  See  Sotah  21. 

3.  It  is  a  little  perplexing  to  accept  the  general  rendition 
of  the  text,  p"»JJSnt)3  *QTWQ\  n&ty  ,Tn  DV1  DV  ^>32K>  (Yoma  35), 
"And  it  was  said  of  Hillel  that  he  worked  and  earned  daily  a 
tropaicon."  A  tropaicon,  says  Rab  Shesheth  (Kethuboth  64), 
is  an  Astira  (Srar^p),  and  what  is  an  Astira?  Half  a  Sus. 
But  this  was  exactly  what  it  cost  to  hear  the  daily  lecture. 
If  Hillel  earned  but  a  tropaicon,  which  he  was  forced  to  pay 
the  doorkeeper  of  the  academy,  what  did  he  have  to  live  on? 
And  from  the  text  it  is  evident  that  he  had  as  much  more  for 
himself  and  family.  It  seems  to  us  that  this  bad  sense  in  the 
text  is  merely  due  to  a  mistake  of  the  copyists  and  later  of 
the  printer.  It  should  read  :  "And  he  earned  two  tropaica 
(p'yDID  "2)."  The  printer  failed  to  put  the  divisional  marks 
on  top  of  the  "",  as  may  be  seen  in  Yoma  35,  where  the  phrase 
rp'JJD-iD  "J  "1C1K  miiT  ""l  is  found,  and  really  gives  an  indica- 
tion of  the  other  reading. 

4.  See  "  Rabbi  Josua  ben  'Hananiah"  in  this  volume. 

5.  See  Yoma  35. 

6.  Ibidem. 

7.  See   Sifra  to  Thasriang,    div.  9 ;    Talmud  Jerusalemi, 
esachim,  div.  6,  1  ;  Tosephta  Negaim  ;  Pesikta  to  Thasriang. 

8.  See  Jerusalemi,  Pesachim,  div.  6,  1. 

275 


276  NOTES 

9.  Ibidem,  and  Talmud  Babli,  Pesachim  69.  Later  Rabbis 
praise  the  resignation  of  the  Bethyrahs  as  an  act  of  graceful 
condescension.  There  seems  to  have  been  no  condescension 
whatever  ;  rather  was  it  a  religious  and  political  necessity  to 
have  a  Davidic  descendant  in  the  presidential  chair,  consider- 
ing also  that  Hillel  stood  much  higher  in  the  estimation  of  the 
people  than  the  Bethyrahs,  who  had  not  attended  the  academy 
of  the  old  masters,  though  they  had  had  the  fullest  oppor- 
tunity, being  residents  of  Jerusalem  and  very  wealthy,  whereas 
the  Babylonian,  who  had  struggled  and  suffered,  could  boast 
of  the  advantage  from  the  masters,  Shemaiah  and  Abtalion. 

10.  See  Talmud  Babli,  Sabbath  1 1  £. 

11.  See  Patristic  Chapters,  1. 

12.  See  Talmud  Babli,  Sabbath  31  ;  conf.  Aboth  de  Rabbi 
Nathan,  div.  1. 

13.  See  Patristic  Chapters,  1. 

14.  Numbers  18,  7. 

15.  Talmud  Babli,  Sabbath  31. 

16.  The  Talmud  (Yoma)  expresses  this  in  the  maxim, 
Dm  niO^  K^  Dm  *ni,  "  Ye  shall  live  by  them  (the  laws)  but 
ye  shall  not  die  by  them." 

17.  Talmud  Babli,  Sabbath  31  ;  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan  1. 

18.  Talmud  Babli,  Gittin  36;  Shebiith  10,  3. 

19.  Talmud  Babli,  Erachin  31. 

20.  Talmud  Babli,  Baba  Metziah  75  ;  Sabbath  148. 

21.  Sotah  48;  Tosephta  Sotah,  div.  13. 

22.  Talmud  Babli,  Synhedrin  16. 

23.  Berachoth  60. 

24.  Derech  Eretz  Rabba,  div.  6. 

25.  Talmud  Babli,  Sabbath  30  £,  ^m  jmuy  DIN  KfV  D^Jjfj 

26.  Sabbath  31  a. 

27.  Midrash  Rabba,  Leviticus,  div.  24. 

28.  Ibidem. 

29.  Talmud  Babli,  Kethuboth  67 ;  Talmud  Jerus,  Peah, 
div.  1. 


NOTES  277 

30.  Tosephta,    Berachoth,    div.   2  ;     Derech    Eretz   Sutta. 

div.  8. 

31.  Talmud  Babli,  Sabbath  16,  and  Sifri  at  the  end. 


CHAPTER    II 


1.  Talmud  Babli  Abodah  Zara  (ed.  1520);  En  Yacobh  II, 
p.  348  (ed.  1  5 19)  Hagadoth  ha-Talmud  (ed.  1 5 1 1)  and  Midrash 
Rabba  Koheleth  (ed.  15  19).  Compare  also  our  note  to  Chap- 
ter V. 

2.  This  Josua  ben  Perachiah  can  hardly  be  the  same  who 
was  the  colleague  of  Nita  the  Arbelite,  who  was  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Sanhedrin  about  one  hundred  years  before  Christ. 
The  notice  in  Sanhedrin  107  £,  referring  to  Josua's  harsh 
treatment  of  Christ  and  the  disapproval  thereof  by  the  Rabbis, 
gives  room  to  one  of  two  suppositions,  either  there  was  in  the 
time  of  Christ  a  man  of  the  same  name,  or  the  writer,  regard- 
less of  chronology,  set  down  the  maxim  not  to  deny  salvation 
to  any  one,  notably  not  to  so  learned  a  man  as  Jesus,  though 
he  was  guilty  of  giving  a  decision  without  having  been  asked 
by  his  Master  to  do  so,  and  for  which  the  loss  of  Paradise  was 
the  penalty.  But  all  this  shows  that  the  Rabbis  frequently 
discussed  the  merits  and  demerits  of  Christ  who,  they  held, 
was  a  secessionist  and  heretic,  and  could  hardly  be  a  sharer  in 
the  bliss  vouchsafed  only  to  the  strictly  orthodox.  To  Jesus 
they  applied  the  saying  of  Rabbi  Josua  ben  Perachiah,  "Keep 
away  from  a  bad  neighbor,  keep  no  company  with  the  godless, 
and  do  not  believe  that  they  go  unpunished"  (Aboth  I). 
They  go  even  so  far  as  to  discuss  the  form  of  punishment  to 
which  Jesus  is  subjected  in  Hell  (see  Babli  Rosh  ha-Shanah 
16;  Jerusalemi  Sanhedrin  I).  This  harsh  measure  is  con- 
demned by  other  Rabbis,  who  hold  that,  "if  thy  right  hand 
pushes  away  a  person,  let  thy  left  be  ready  to  receive  him 


278  NOTES 

back  again"  (Babli  Sanhedrin  107).  But  the  strict  adherents 
to  the  letter  of  the  law  persisted  that  the  action  of  Ben  Pera- 
chiah  was  justifiable.  Thereupon  the  gentler  disposed  Mas- 
ters exclaimed,  "Then  let  no  man  be  like  Josua  ben  Perachia 
who  pushed  away  Jesus  with  both  hands"  (ibidem).  This  de- 
cision seems  to  settle  the  question  of  the  fellowship  of  Jesus 
whom  the  Rabbis  admittedly  held  worthy  of  consideration. 
And  as  Jesus  was  not  a  heretic  (Min),  he  having  lived  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  laws  of  Moses,  the  rule  laid  down  by  the 
Rabbis  as  to  those  who  are  doomed  to  the  fires  of  the  Ge-Hin- 
non  (Hell)  does  not  apply  to  Jesus  (see  Babli  Rosh  ha-Shanah 
16).  Regarding  the  death  penalty  the  Talmud  is  equally  em- 
phatic, showing  unmistakably  that  the  condemnation  of  Jesus 
did  not  find  general  approval  by  the  later  Rabbis,  and  such 
Masters  as  Rabbi  Akibah  and  Rabbi  Tarphon  are  reported  as 
saying,  "Had  we  been  members  of  the  Sanhedrin,  there  never 
would  have  been  passed  a  death  sentence"  (Mishnah  Makkoth 
1,  10). 

3.  Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  43  and  67. 

4.  Josts   Geschichte  des  Judenthums  und   seiner  Secten, 
Vol.  I,  f,  p.  405. 

5.  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth. 

6.  Talmud  Babli  Abodah  Zara  1 7. 

7.  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan  4. 

8.  Mishnah  Rosh  ha-Shanah  IV,  1. 

9.  Talmud  Babli  Sotah  47  ;  comp.  Josts  Geschichte  etc. 

Vol.  I,  p.  399. 

10.  Ibidem  Pesachim  57;  ibidem  Jost. 

1 1.  Ibidem  Sotah  22. 

12.  Megillath  Taanith  XII,  6. 

13.  Talmud  Babli  Nedarim  39;  ibid,  Pesachim  54;   Tar- 
gum  Jonathan  ben  Uziel  to  Isaiah  42,  1,  2. 

14.  Talmud  Babil  Sanhedrin  97;  Midrash  Rabba  Echah 

11,2. 

15.  The  eight  hundred   Pharisees  crucified  by  Alexander 
Yannai  were  too  fresh  in  their  memory  to  let  the  Pharisees 


NOTES  279 

sanction  such  an  atrocious  act  even  though  they  had  differed 
as  to  his  Messiahship. 

It  is  evident  from  that  alone  that  there  were  no  Pharisees 
at  the  trial.  Such  a  flimsy  charge  as  the  one  by  which  was 
specified  that  Jesus  called  himself  the  "Son  of  God"  would 
not  have  been  sustained  by  the  Pharisees.  Every  Jew  was  in 
the  habit  of  calling  God  "Father."  The  words  "  Our  Father" 
(Abinu  Malekeynu)  and  "Our  Father  who  art  in  Heaven" 
(Abinu  sheba-Shamaiim)  were  words  frequently  spoken  by  the 
Hebrews  in  their  prayers.  Nor  was  it  very  extraordinary  to 
call  one  "Son  of  God,"  since  the  Jews  are  often  called  "sons 
of  God,"  ayrhH  nwfr  Dns*  D^l  (Deut.  14  1),  and  also  the 
"first  born  and  beloved  son,"  DnSOl  lmrttfl  ^nt^  IV:  »3 
"J}';  TlXlp  (Jer.  51,  20).  The  accusation  of  being  a  false 
prophet,  npc?  &P3J,  the  Pharisees  would  not  have  sustained 
against  Jesus;  for  he  merely  deplored  the  sad  condition  of  the 
Hebrews  spiritually,  particularly  those  in  power,  and  the  Phar- 
isees fully  coincided  with  him  in  the  matter.  Any  one  could 
see  whither  the  Jews  were  drifting  by  their  negligence  of  the 
Law  of  God.  But  even  had  the  Pharisees  sided  with  the  Sad- 
ducees  in  the  charge  that  Jesus  was  a  "perversionist,"  JVDE 
inert  ;  that  he  led  people  from  the  true  faith  to  a  false  hope; 
that  he  diverted  the  Messianic  belief  and  incited  the  people  to 
rebellion  against  the  existing  authorities;  had  the  Pharisees 
been  willing  to  forget  so  far  their  own  interests  in  the  interest 
of  their  enemies,  they  could  not  have  convicted  Jesus  of  that 
charge,  at  least  without  going  against  the  plain  law  of  Moses 
which  provides  the  death  penalty  only  in  cases  where  a  person 
had  been  guilty  of  leading  the  people  from  the  faith  in  God 
to  the  worship  of  idols  (Deut.  13,  2-12),  and  no  one  could 
have  said  such  a  monstrous  thing  of  Jesus. 

16.  Neither  the  term  <ti>  dtras  nor  i>fitis  \tyere  are  rabbinical 
affirmatives.  This  form  of  expression  is  seldom  met  with  in 
talmudical  writings.  Nor  is  it  an  affirmation  according  to 
Matt  (26,  25)  and  John  (18,  37).  If  the  expression  of  Jesus, 
-thou  hast  said,"  meant  affirmation,  it  would  stand  in  glaring 


280  NOTES 

contradiction  to  the  thoughts  expressed  in  John  18,  37.  There 
is  but  one  instance  in  rabbinical  writings  where  the  phrase 
"ye  have  said  it"  (JimONp  pTIN)  appears,  and  there  it  is  a 
distinct  negative,  as  is  evident  from  the  addition,  "I  did  not 
say  so"  (KrcNp  i6  bMK).  This  is  the  case  of  a  certain 
scholar,  Bar  Kapara,  by  name,  who  takes  it  upon  himself  to 
announce  to  the  people  of  Sephoris  the  death  of  Rabbi  Juda 
the  Prince.  The  Sephorites  had  vowed  to  kill  the  man  who 
should  bring  them  the  sad  news,  so  much  did  they  love  the 
Prince.  It  is  therefore  evident  that,  had  Bar  Kapara  intended 
to  affirm  their  question  regarding  the  Prince's  death,  they 
would  surely  have  killed  him  (vide  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth 
7,  7;  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  134  a ;  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Kil- 
ayim  9,  4,  fol.  32  a  ;  Talmud  Babli  Kethuboth  104  a).  It 
merely  shows  how  quick-witted  scholars  made  use  of  the 
phrase  to  get  out  of  serious  situations.  In  the  case  of  Christ 
the  reply  also  confirms  the  simple  fact  that  he  never  spoke  of 
his  Messiahship  in  public,  but  that  it  was  the  High  Priest  who 
made  the  statement  public  for  the  first  time.  Jesus,  there- 
fore, says,  "Thou  hast  said." 


CHAPTER   III 

1.  Talmud  Babli  Rosh  ha-Shanah  21;   ibidem  Sanhedrin 

41. 

2.  Ibidem  Succah  28. 

3.  Ibidem  Berachoth  17. 

4.  Ibidem  Yoma  39. 

4  a.    Ibidem  Sotah  47,  D^EH  DWI  ^D3  ttBKJDfl  13W. 

5.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Succah  IV,  6;  Talm.  Babli   Pesa- 
chim  28. 

6.  Palmud  Babli  Gittin  56.    The  historian  Jost  (Geschichte 
des  Judenthums  und  seiner  Secten,  Vol.  I,  p.  444)  ascribes  this 


NOTES  281 

act  to  Josephus.  This  is  incorrect.  Josephus  neither  asked 
for  nor  was  he  granted  by  Vespasian  the  favor  of  founding  a 
school  at  Yamnai.  He  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in 
Rome,  the  pensioner  of  several  Emperors,  devoting  his  time  to 
the  writing  of  his  histories.  Comp.  Graetz'  History  of  the 
Jews,  English  translation,  Vol.  II.  p.  288. 

7.  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth. 

8.  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan  4. 

9.  Ibidem. 

10.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Nedarim  VIII,  7. 

1 1.  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan. 

12.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  28. 

13.  Ibidem  Sotah  49. 


CHAPTER   IV 


1.  nVWtt  'mh  N^D  nWDn,  "Piety  leads  to  Purity"  (So- 
tah 10). 

2.  The  Hillelite  school  held  with  the  ancient  masters, 
Shemaiah  and  Abhtalion,  that  "man  liveth  by  the  laws — 
Di"Q  TWO*  btfl  Dm 'ni —  but  he  shall  not  die  by  (on  account 
of)  them."  The  Chassidaic  races,  on  the  other  hand,  held 
that  one  should  die  rather  than  break  the  law:  as  it  is  written 
(Deuteronomy  6,  4),  "And  thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God 
with  thy  whole  heart  and  with  thy  whole  life";  the  words 
•'thy  whole  life"  signify  that  thou  shalt  not  break  the  law  of 
God  though  thy  life  be  taken  from  thee,  bt3U  l^DK  "pETD:  ^33 
"pK'QJ  J1K.     Berachoth  61. 

3.  Ibidem.  The  Chassidaic  maxim  was,  "Practical  right- 
eousness is  preferable  to  study,"  ilB>J»n  N^K  ip'JJH  Vninn  vhl 
(Patristic  Chapters). 

4.  See  Berachoth  34. 

5.  Ibidem,  3,  11,  12,  13. 


282  NOTES 

6.  Talmud  Babli,  Berachoth  24. 

7.  Ibidem  18. 

8.  Taanith  25. 

9.  Midrash  Rabba,  Koheleth  1. 

10.  Taanith  25. 

11.  Talmud  Babli,  Berachoth  33. 

12.  Taanith  24. 

13.  I  believe  there  is  a  play  on  the  name,  and  WS  really 
stands  for  N^K  or  SO-JTK,  "'tis  here." 

14.  This  story  found  many  doubters.  The  Talmud  is  not 
quite  ready  to  vouch  for  its  truth,  and  thinking  the  unbelievers 
in  this  miracle  entitled  to  some  consideration,  the  Rabbis  put 
in  the  guarded  phrases— DlKtW  pEMD  :Dn01S  B>"1  "And 
some  (of  the  Rabbis)  say,  the  beams  were  joined"  (by  the  car- 
penter, of  course).  (See  Taanith  24.)  This  certainty  solves 
the  problem  in  a  rational  and  practical  manner.  But  to  throw 
cold  water  on  a  proposition  which  is  intended  to  perpetuate 
the  belief  in  the  extraordinary  powers  of  the  Rabbis,  particu- 
larly those  of  the  Chassidaic-pharisaic  sect,  would  not  be  in 
harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  Talmud.  Wherefore  an 
addition  is  made  to  sustain  the  miracle,  though  it  does  not 
directly  contradict  what  the  "Some"  say,  as  quoted  above. 
The  witness  in  the  case  is  a  certain  holy  man  by  the  name  of 
Plimo  (Second  Century  A.C.),  who  unequivocally  testifies  as 
to  the  projection  of  the  beams.  "I  have  seen  that  house," 
says  Plimo  (Taanith  24),  "and  the  beams  projected  to  the  meas- 
ure of  an  ell  on  each  side.  And  the  people  told  me  that  this 
house  was  'beamed'  by  the  prayer  of  Rabbi  'Haninah  ben 
Dosa";  Vi!>Bn3  KDY1  p  KWn  »m  ITVpP  HT  rV3-  By  this  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  miracle  is  based  upon  "hearsay,"  while 
the  main  facts  in  the  case,  namely  the  projection  of  the  beams, 
is  supported  by  the  "best  evidence." 

15.  Here  again  some  one  evidently  casts  doubt  upon  the 
veracity  of  the  report.  "How  came  Rabbi  'Haninah  by  goats, 
since  he  was  poor?"  some  doubting  Rabbi  asks.  "And  our 
sages  have  said,"  he  continues,   "that   small   cattle  are  not 


NOTES  283 

raised  in  Palestine."  (Taanith  24.)  But  he/e  again  a  witness 
is  found  who  gives  a  plausible  explanation.  Says  Rabbi 
Pinehas:  It  happened  that  a  man  stopped  at  'Haninah's  house 
and  left  there  some  chickens,  which  'Haninah's  wife  found, 
and  of  which  she  at  once  informed  her  husband. 

"We  can  eat  neither  the  chickens  nor  the  eggs  which  the 
chickens  have  laid ;  they  are  not  ours,"  he  said. 

And  thus  it  came  to  pass  that  a  great  many  eggs  accumu- 
lated from  which  came  many  chickens,  much  to  the  annoyance 
of  the  saint  and  his  wife;  but  they  touched  them  not  as  food. 
However,  to  rid  themselves  of  the  chickens  they  sold  them 
and  with  the  proceeds  bought  goats.  Some  time  after  this  the 
original  owner  of  the  chickens  came  back  that  way,  and  Rabbi 
'Haninah  heard  him  say  to  a  fellow-traveller:  "In  this  place 
have  I  lost  my  chickens." 

"Couldst  thou  identify  them?"  asked  the  Rabbi. 

"Aye,  Rabbi,  I  can  do  that  easily,"  the  man  replied,  and 
forthwith  described  the  chickens.  Thereupon  the  Rabbi  told 
the  man  of  the  disposition  he  had  made  of  the  chickens,  and 
bade  him  take  the  goats  instead,  which  the  man  gladly  ac- 
cepted. And  these  were  the  goats,  the  Talmud  adds,  which 
carried  bears  upon  their  horns.     (Ibidem.) 

16.  HNUJ  n^liru  DHpon  JV2  aintlPD,  "Since  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple,  prophecy  has  been  abolished"  (Baba 
Bathra  fol.  9),  is  indicative  of  this  policy.  It  was  precisely  this 
idea  which  the  Rabbis  advanced  against  Christianity.  Grant- 
ing that  Jesus  was  a  prophet,  the  Rabbis  held  that  he  had  no 
authority  to  dissolve  the  old  dispensation  and  to  place  in  its 
stead  a  new  form,  nny»  "Ol  Enni?  'ftttTI  N"3J  TX  (Megillah  2  b). 
But  since,  by  the  testimony  of  Jesus  himself,  he  had  not  come 
to  destroy  but  to  fulfil,  those  claiming  and  advocating  a  new 
form  in  his  name  were  deceivers. 

17.  Talmud  Babli,  Yebamoth  121. 


284  NOTES 


CHAPTER    V 

1.  Talmud  Babli  Hagigah  14. 

2.  Patristic  Chapters  II,  19. 

3.  Josephus  Belli  Jud.     IV.  1,  3;  Ant.  XVII,  21,  3. 

4.  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  114;  ibidem  147:  Aboth  de 
Rabbi  Nathan  14;  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth  p.  101. 

5.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Shebiith  1  ;  ibidem  Terumoth  at  the 
end. 

6.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Metziah  59. 

7.  Pirkey  de  Rabbi  Eliezer  I. 

8.  Talmud  Babli  Gittin  56;  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth, 
7,  ir. 

9.  Pirkey  de  Rabbi  Eliezer  II. 

10.  Ibidem. 

11.  See  Chapter  III  this  volume. 

12.  The  historian  Graetz  errs  in  stating  that  Gamaliel  II 
disciplined  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos  as  one  opposed  to  his  au- 
thority in  matters  which  had  been  decided  by  Ben  Zakkai. 
Such  could  not  have  been  the  case,  inasmuch  as  Gamaliel  II 
was  placed  upon  the  presidential  chair  by  Ben  Zakkai  himself, 
and  Eliezer  opposed  nothing  enacted  by  his  Master.  It  was 
Josua  ben  'Hananiah  who  forced  the  President  to  pronounce  the 
ban  over  Eliezer,  and  as  we  believe,  much  against  his  inclination. 

13.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Metzia  59  a. 

14.  See  Chapter  I  this  volume.  Hillel  says,  "So  have  I 
heard  it  from  the  mouth  of  Shemaiah  and  Abtalion." 

15.  The  reference  to  the  "bread-fruit  tree,"  Dlin,  is  a  very 
happy  one  and  makes  the  meaning  quite  obvious,  since  it 
points  to  an  historical  fact.  The  time  of  Eliezer's  trial  took 
place  shortly  after  the  destruction  of  the  second  Temple,  about 
seventy  years  after  Christ,  hence  Eliezer's  reference  to  the 
bread-fruit  tree  which  requires  seventy  years  for  maturing  and 
the  bearing  of  fruit. 

16.  Patristic  Chapters  I,  1  ;  Abodah  Zara  36,  the  statement 


NOTES  285 

is  found  that  Moses  was  shown  every  jot  and  tittle  of  the  Law, 
and  all  that  which  the  learned  men  in  coming  generations  would 
add  and  explain  ;    min   ^ipi    TWO*?   Pl"3"pn  nN"li"U}>  1ftta 

tnro  D'Tnyp  noi  onsiD  *pnpni. 

17.  The  notice,  "Rabbi  Eliezer,  the  Shammathite,  for  he  was 
of  the  House  (i.e.,  of  the  opinion)  of  Shammai,"  VTUX>  "iTy^N  '31 
"•NOC  TV  30  im  (see  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Shebiith  I,  at  the  end  ; 
ibidem  Terumoth  V,  4),  indicates  that  the  strict  Shammaites 
suited  Eliezer's  ideas  far  better  than  those  of  the  lenient  Hil- 
lelites,  and  from  what  we  know  of  his  character,  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  he  was  "a  Shammaite  in  the  House  of  Hillel." 

18.  Josua  had  a  secret  contempt  for  the  wealthy  Gamaliel, 
and  once  this  became  manifest  in  a  very  unpleasant  form  to 
Gamaliel,  when  he  was  forced  to  beg  pardon  of  the  learned 
blacksmith,  who,  though  he  forgave  the  public  insult  to  which 
the  President  had  subjected  him,  cried,  UTIJO  nnKK>  Tl"6  ilN, 
"Woe  to  the  generation  whose  leader  thou  art"  (Talmud 
Babli  Berachoth  36). 

19.  Rabbi  Eliezer  had  often  reminded  Akibah  of  his 
former  occupation,  which  was  that  of  a  cattle  herder,  by  say- 
ing, "Thou  hast  not  demonstrated  to  me  thy  fitness  of  even 
herding  cattie,"  np3  "jmb  nyjn  t&  P"ljtt.  Akibah  took  the 
rebuke  good-naturedly,  and  said,  "  No,  I  am  not  fit  even  to 
herd  sheep"  |N¥  >]!)lb  l^DXl  (Talmud  Babli  Yebamoth  16). 

20.  A  later  hand  evidently  added  the  words,  poo  piyi 
plEiyi,  "And  they  have  remained  in  the  same  bent  position." 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  this  is  a  mere  figure  of  speech;  for 
Roman  legions  soon  after  swept  over  the  country  and  de- 
stroyed every  school  in  the  land  and  nearly  every  Jewish  home 
as  well.  But  the  two  divisions  in  Israel  have  remained  unto 
this  day.  There  are  even  now  many  who  waver  between  the 
parties,  and  are  loth  to  identify  themselves  with  either  the 
zealots  or  with  those  who  have  foresworn  the  ancient  faith  al- 
together. These  remain  religiously  inert  until  awakened  by  a 
force  with  which  they  had  thitherto  not  reckoned. 

21.  Exodus  XIII,  2. 


286  NOTES 

22.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Metziah  59  a. 

23.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Pesachim  VI,  4. 

24.  Ibidem. 

25.  fun  I^NE^  DTK.  "An  improper  person"  might  readily 
confound  the  decisions,  and  thus  bring  chaos  where  order  was 
desired  most.  For  it  was  necessary  to  report  to  Eliezer  the 
whole  proceedings,  and  as  an  ignorant  person  could  not  possi- 
bly give  an  accurate  rendition,  people  might  say,  the  Rabbis 
condemned  Eliezer  unjustly.  Akibah  particularly  desired  to 
lessen  the  shock  to  his  Master  and  take  the  cruel  sting  from 
the  awful  message.  It  was  no  small  matter,  this  anathemizing 
so  great  a  man  as  Rabbi  Eliezer,  the  most  learned  and  the 
most  pious  man  in  Israel  of  that  day.  And  though  the  ban 
was  conditioned  upon  recantation,  Akibah  rightly  feared  that 
the  shock  might  prove  fatal  to  Eliezer's  life,  in  which  case  a 
whole  world  of  learning  would  be  destroyed,  ^3  DK  THTO  NVOJ1 
1^3  OTiyn.  The  Rabbis  accorded  as  great  a  veneration  to  the 
person  of  the  scholar  as  to  his  learning,  and  the  later  Rabbis, 
disregarding  the  causes  of  this  unfortunate  occurrence,  give  un- 
stinted praise  to  Rabbi  Eliezer,  min  "IDD  T3J3  "iTy^N  *T\  riDCW. 
"With  the  death  of  Rabbi  Eliezer  the  book  of  the  law  was 
hidden,"  they  say  (Rabbi  Sotah  49).  Their  utmost  severity 
is  directed  against  Akibah,  who,  they  say,  "deserved  to  be 
burned  by  the  fire  of  God  for  bearing  to  the  great  Rabbi 
the  tidings  of  the  ban,"  ftSHW  2"mw  N"lfj  "6  tvn  iriK  TC^n 
D1p£^>.  The  expression  Dlpdi?  HSn^  T'PiriJ^  is  not  quite 
clear.  If  Akibah  did  his  simple  duty,  why  should  he  have 
merited  punishment,  and  meriting  punishment,  why  should  it 
have  been  that  of  immolation  (nD,")£>)?  But  in  this  seeming 
censure  of  the  Rabbis  there  is  at  once  expressed  the  high 
degree  of  Akibah's  worth,  and  of  the  even  greater  worth  of 
Rabbi  Eliezer.  So  holy  was  the  latter  that  none  but  an  angel 
should  have  borne  the  message  of  his  ban  to  him.  In  usurp- 
ing to  himself  the  right  of  an  angel,  Akibah  became  subject  to 
the  conditions  governing  a  "service  angel."  The  service  angels 
are  created  in  the  fire  stream  (Nehar  di  Nur)  for  service  unto 


NOTES  287 

Jehovah  and  perish  immediately  after  their  work  is  accom- 
plished, being  engulfed  in  the  Nehar  di  Nur  (see  Hagigah  13). 
Akibah,  therefore,  should  have  been  burned  by  the  heavenly 
fire.  That  which  saved  him  was  the  distinction  of  having 
served  and  studied  under  Rabbi  Eliezer.  As  such  his  physi- 
cal condition  became  superior  to  that  of  a  service  angel,  and 
his  life  was  spared.  "Leave  him  alone,"  the  word  went  forth, 
"he  hath  served  a  great  man,"  CWE>  ^nJ  D1K  *6  IITjn  V1IDN 
(see  Talmud  Babli  Erubin  54  a). 

26.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Metziah  59. 

27.  Ibidem  Baba  Kama  91. 

28.  Patristic  Chapters  II,  16. 

29.  Talmud  Babli  Sotah  48.  The  words,  flS  li>  {J«S5>  >ft  fo 
"6d3,  "He  who  hath  bread  in  his  basket,"  etc.,  seem  to  come 
from  the  same  source  whence  came  those  lustrous  sentences 
reported  by  Matthew  (6,  26),  "Behold  the  birds  of  the  heaven, 
that  they  sow  not,  neither  do  they  reap,  nor  gather  into  barns; 
and  your  heavenly  Father  feedeth  them.  Are  ye  not  of  much 
more  value  than  they?"  .  .  .  "Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field, 
how  they  grow;  they  toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin,  yet  I  say 
unto  you,  that  even  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed 
like  one  of  these.  But  if  God  doth  so  clothe  the  grass  of  the 
field,  which  to-day  is,  and  to-morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven, 
shall  he  not  much  more  clothe  you,  O  ye  of  little  faith?" 

The  utterances  of  Rabbi  Eliezer  and  those  of  Jesus  seem 
more  than  a  coincidence,  they  are  wonderfully  alike,  they  could 
not  be  more  so,  in  aim  at  least,  if  uttered  by  the  same  person 
or  by  one  who  was  on  terms  of  familiarity  with  the  person  and 
his  thoughts.  Did  Eliezer  repeat  authentic  utterances?  It  is 
more  than  probable.  His  master,  Ben  Zakkai,  came  upon  the 
scene  less  than  half  a  century  after  the  birth  of  Christ;  he 
knew;  he  had  heard  from  eye-witnesses  of  the  Man  of  Galilee. 
But  it  was  a  matter  over  which  careful  men  spoke  in  hints  and 
whispers,  and  the  diplomatic  Ben  Zakkai  was  the  last  person 
to  express  himself  in  terms  that  would  remind  of  Jesus  or 
which  might  be  construed  as  betraying  a  leaning  toward  the 


288  NOTES 

doctrines  of  the  "Minim"  (Christians).  Eliezer,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  no  diplomatic  considerations.  In  fact,  he  may  have 
looked  upon  his  excommunication  as  an  unjust  act  equal  to  the 
condemnation  of  Christ  by  the  Sadducees.  To  him  the  life, 
words,  acts  and  sufferings  of  Jesus  were  intensely  significant. 
He  associated  with  the  followers  of  Christ;  he  was,  in  fact, 
one  of  them,  and  he  did  not  hesitate  to  promulgate  doctrines 
which  he  thought  fair  and  noble.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore, 
to  find  him  repeat  almost  verbatim  the  words  of  Jesus.  If  we 
compare  a  few  of  the  maxims  of  Eliezer  with  the  words  of 
Christ,  we  are  at  once  struck  with  their  wonderful  similarity, 
and  no  sane  person  will  assert  that  Jesus  repeated  what  Elie- 
zer had  said.  Thus  we  find  that  Jesus  warns  against  the  put- 
ting away  of  a  wife  for  any  cause  other  than  adultery  (Matt.  5, 
32),  and  in  another  place  he  praises  the  institution  of  marriage 
as  a  divine  injunction.  Rabbi  Eliezer  is  ready  with  the  same 
thought,  in  almost  the  same  words,  rra-ll  PP"IB3  pDlJ?  I^K^  $>3 
D^l  1D1K>  "6fcO,  "He  who  puts  away  his  wife,  and  liveth  not 
with  her  in  accordance  with  the  Law  of  God  (and  the  law  of 
nature),  is  as  one  who  sheds  (human)  blood"  (Babli  Yebamoth 
63).  Jesus  preaches  forgiveness  of  sin,  bliss  of  Paradise  for 
the  righteous  and  the  repentant  sinner,  but  punishment  for 
the  non-repentant.  Eliezer  says,  "In  the  coming  world  the 
Lord  will  sit  in  the  circle  of  the  righteous,  who  will  point  with 
their  finger  at  him,  saying,  '  He  is  our  God,  our  hope  and  our 
salvation'"  (Babli  Taanith  31).  And  again  (Shebuoth  39), 
"Those  who  repent,  the  Lord  will  cleanse;  but  he  will  not 
cleanse  those  who  do  not  repent,"  )y^>  npr  N^  D'QB^  ripy 
D^y.  Jesus  condemns  set  phrasesof  prayers  and  showy  devo- 
tion (Matt.  6,  5).  Eliezer  holds  that  prayers  at  set  times  and  in 
public,  spoken  in  set  phrases,  are  not  devotion,  ]}2p  in?sn  nt^iyn 
D^IJnn  ln^Qn  PS  (Berachoth  29).  Jesus  praises  a  heathen  in 
whose  heart  the  faith  has  taken  firm  root,  holding  that  salvation 
is  to  be  universal  to  those  who  come  to  God  with  a  contrite 
heart.  Eliezer  says,  "The  dispersion  of  Israel  was  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  the  number  of  converts  to  the  faith  in 


NOTES  289 

the  God  of  Israel,"  am  Offbv  lBmrpfc*  *13  N^tf  fonts*  rh»\  t6 
(Pesachim  87).  In  another  place  (Kiddushin  31,  32),  Eliezer 
tells  of  the  filial  devotion  of  a  heathen  who  would  not  disturb 
his  father's  sleep,  though  by  doing  so  he  might  have  gained  a 
large  sum  of  money.  Obviously  Eliezer  had  found  no  such 
devotion  to  the  Lord's  commandment  among  the  Israelites. 
Does  not  this  strikingly  remind  of  the  words  of  Jesus,  "Verily 
I  say  unto  you,  I  have  not  found  so  great  faith,  no,  not  in  Is- 
rael" (Matt.  8,  10)?  And  so  these  analogies  run  through  the 
Talmud  like  a  sparkling,  murmuring  brook  'midst  green 
meadows.  And  if  we  follow  the  brook  to  its  source,  we  are 
brought  face  to  face  with  facts  which  set  at  rest  many  doubts, 
principal  amongst  which  is  the  question  as  to  the  "Sermon  on 
the  Mount."  Jesus  actually  delivered  that  wonderful  form  of 
divine  truth  in  his  own  matchless  manner,  and  while  some  of 
the  thoughts  had  been  with  the  learned  men  in  Israel  long  be- 
fore him,  none  had  ever  given  or  sought  to  give  them  as  com- 
pactly and  concisely  and  with  such  force  as  Jesus.  Some 
gifted  person  had  retained  the  form  and  context  and  repeated 
them  toothers.  Ben  Zakkai  knew  them,  and  Eliezer,  through 
close  contact  with  the  Christians,  absorbed  them  so  thoroughly 
that  he  embodied  most  of  them  in  his  discourses.  (Conf.  what 
we  wrote  on  this  subject  in  Chapter  II.) 

30.  The  expression,  *"fiMfl  ^K"  TO^HD  nnK,  "one  of  the 
disciples  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth," does  not  necessarily  mean  that 
James  (or  Jacobus)  was  an  immediate  disciple  of  Christ;  but 
in  the  sentence  following  that  passage  the  expression  is  found, 
'■Own  IB*  "OniD^  "p,  "thus  taught  me  Jesus  of  Nazareth," 
and  this  certainly  points  to  a  personal  intercourse  with  Christ. 
The  non-expurgated  editions  of  the  Talmud  and  the  En  Yacobh 
have  these  references  in  full  (vide  Babli  Abodah  Zarah  17, 
edition  1520;  En  Yacobh  II,  p.  348,  ed.  1415  ;  Hagadoth  ha- 
Talmud  ad  loco,  ed.  1  5 1 1,  and  in  the  En  Yacobh,  ed.  Saloniki), 
the  close  contact  of  James  with  Jesus  is  emphasized  by  the 
words,  nSWl  It"  "6  1DN  "P,  "So  was  I  told  by  Jesus  of  Naz- 
areth"; conf.  also  the  Midrash   Rabba  Koheleth  (ed.   15 19), 


290 


NOTES 


where  the  term  1£}»  D15W0  is  found  and  points  to  the  authentic- 
ity of  the  words  of  James. 

31.  Midrash  Rabba  Genesis,  div.  13;  Talmud  Jerusalemi 
Sanhedrin,  div.  VII. 

32.  Talmud  Babli  Abodah  Zarah  16  and  17. 

33.  Ibidem. 

34.  The  Talmudic  commentators  are  sorely  perplexed  re- 
garding the  identity  of  the  person  designated  as  "WD,  "Some- 
body"; some  believe  him  to  be  identical  with  Absalom,  the  re- 
bellious son  of  David;  others  think  it  is  Solomon,  who  had 
fallen  from  grace  and  whom  they  would  not  mention  by  name. 
Even  Balaam  and  Titus  come  under  speculative  consideration. 
The  truth  of  the  matter  is,  the  Rabbis  of  those  days  did  men- 
tion the  name  of  Jesus,  and  men  like  Eliezer  and  others  had 
no  hesitancy  in  referring  to  him  by  his  name.  Later  the  times 
and  with  them  the  sentiment  changed,  and  some  of  the  copy- 
ists substituted  the  pseudonym  for  Jesus.  There  are  several 
such  pseudonyms  for  Jesus,  the  "John  Doe"  terms,  as  it  were; 
but  the  students  had  not  the  least  doubt  as  to  who  the  person 
so  designated  was.  This  fiction  was  resorted  to  by  the  Rab- 
bis partly  out  of  fear  for  the  supersensitive  censor  of  Chris- 
tian governments,  to  whom  the  "Jesus"  in  a  Hebrew  book 
seemed  placed  for  blasphemy.  The  Jewish  people  had  suf- 
fered so  much  at  the  hands  of  Christians  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
that  the  name  became  significant  of  horror,  and  Jewish  schol- 
ars refrained  from  mentioning  it  in  their  discussions  (see  Josts 
Geschichte  des  Judenthums  und  seiner  Secten,  Vol.  I,  p.  394). 
The  question  asked  by  the  visiting  Rabbis,  whether  "  Peloni " 
had  a  share  in  the  bliss  of  Paradise,  certainly  points  to  Jesus. 
Had  they  meant  any  other  person  Eliezer  would  not  have 
evaded  the  question.  But  in  his  state  of  mind  he  was  unwill- 
ing to  give  a  definite  answer. 

35.  Tosephtah  Yebamoth  III,  3  ;  Talmud  Babli  Yoma  66 a. 

36.  Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  68  £. 

37.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Sotah,  at  the  end. 

38.  Talmud  Babli  Gittin  63. 


NOTES  291 


CHAPTER  VI 


1.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  27;  Bechoroth  36. 

2.  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan  14. 

3.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Yebamoth  3. 

4.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  58. 

5.  Ibidem  Megillah  3. 

6.  Ibidem  Pesachim  49.  Aaron,  the  brother  of  Moses, 
was  the  ancestor  of  the  priests. 

7.  Ibidem  Kethuboth  12  and  13;  ibidem  Sotah  20. 

8.  Ibidem  Sabbath  153;  Jerusalemi  Sabbath  I,  6;  Babli 
Abodah  Zara  61  ;  ibidem  Baba  Bathrah  60. 

9.  Babli  Berachoth  gives  the  impression  that  it  was  Akibah 
who  assisted  against  Josua;  but  ibidem  28  it  is  stated  that 
Simon  ben  Yohai,  a  disciple  of  Akibah,  asked  the  question. 
The  chances  are  that  master  and  disciple  had  an  under- 
standing in  the  matter,  to  down  Josua. 

10.  Ibidem  Berachoth  27;  Jerusalemi  Bechoroth  36. 

1 1.  See  supra. 

12.  Talmud  Babli  Pesachim  53. 

13.  Ibidem  Taanith  7. 

14.  Megillath  Taanith  XII,  29. 

15.  Tosephtah  'Hagigah. 

16.  Ibidem. 

17.  Midrash  Rabba  Genesis  div.  64. 

18.  Koheleth  IX,  4. 

19.  Midrash  Rabba  Esther  at  the  end. 

20.  Spart  X,  11.  Hadrian  was  afraid  of  the  Parthians, 
and  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  going  to  war  with  the 
Romans,  he  conceded  to  them  two  provinces. 

21.  We  shall  not  repeat  here  the  talmudical  form,  which 
though  surpassing  in  poetic  grace,  must  of  necessity  be  substi- 
tuted by  our  less  perfect  rendition.  We  refer  the  reader  to 
either  the  original,  Talmud  Babli  Chulin  59  and  60,  or  to 
Winter  and  Wuensche's  excellent  translation  of  these  passages 


292  NOTES 

in  the  German  language  (Geschichte  der  Jiidischen  Literatur, 
Vol.  I,  p.  344)- 

22.  Script,  hist.  Augusti,  by  Flavius  Popiscus;  Midrash 
Rabba  Genesis  div.  64. 

23.  Talmud  Babli  Bechoroth  8  and  9. 

24.  The  Romans  called  the  rebellious  Hebrews,  particu- 
larly the  terrible  Siccarees,  snakes.  Conf.  also  Chapter  III, 
this  volume. 

25.  We  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  conversation 
took  place  before  the  Bar  Kochba  revolution,  about  the  year 
123  A.C.  The  rebellion,  started  about  131  A.C.,  lasted  a  little 
over  two  years.  This  would  bring  Rabbi  Josua's  answer 
very  near  an  exact  statement  of  facts,  namely  that  the  He- 
brews could  not  get  on  a  war  footing  short  of  seven  years. 
Hadrian's  information  was  that  the  rebellion  would  take  place 
in  a  shorter  time.  He  did  not  believe  it,  because  when  he 
visited  Syria  a  year  or  two  before  he  had  found  everything  in 
perfect  order  and  so  reported  to  the  Senate  (see  Chapter  VII). 
Did  Rabbi  Josua  seek  to  mislead  him  by  telling  him  the 
truth?     We  think  so. 

26.  Rashi  Bechoroth  8. 

27.  The  text  contains  the  expression  D£>  "ION,  "he  uttered 
the  tetragrammaton,"  by  means  of  which  he  flew  into  the  air. 
But  in  our  presentation  we  have  followed  the  commentator 
"M'harsha,"  who  lays  special  stress  upon  the  fact  that  "the 
Rabbi  fought  the  battle  of  Israel's  faith  against  the  heathen 
philosophers,    and    that    there  was   no    folly   in   his  speech," 

rwi  nnoy  nav6  xa  *6k  !ftm  j?n  nm  hv  ww  "im»  rwi  vh 

irnJlON  (M'harsha  to  Bechoroth  8). 

28.  Babli  Berachoth  9. 

29.  Ibidem  Bechoroth  9 a. 

30.  Midrash  Rabba  Echah  XLIII.  4. 

31.  Ibidem. 

32.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Sanhedrin  IV. 

33.  Ibidem. 

34.  Talmud  Babli  Chulin  59. 


NOTES  293 

35.  Ibidem  Yebamoth  87 ;  Maaser  Sheni  div.  2  at  the  end. 

36.  Midrash  Rabbi  Genesis,  div,  61. 

37.  Ibidem  Leviticus,  div.  34. 

38.  In  the  utterances  of  Rabbi  Josua  is  found  a  remarka- 
ble similarity  to  those  of  Eliezer  with  whom  he  holds  that  one 
should  have  faith  in  God's  Providence  for  sustenance  (JKD 
'JNTO  TiT  N'H  TiTl).  Evidently  both  men  drank  at  the  same 
fountain,  one  sooner,  the  other  later. 

39.  Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  99;  Tosephta  Oheloth  div.  16. 

40.  Ibidem  Pesachim  68. 

41.  Ibidem  Sotah  20  (HOIK'  TDn  — N^HD  PTIfi). 

42.  Ibidem  Sanhedrin  105;  Tosephta  Sanhedrin  div.  13. 

43.  Talmud  Babli  'Hagigah  3a;  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan 
div.  18. 

44.  Ibidem  'Hagigah  5  (pro»  £  'inn   .*10). 

45.  See  Chapter  X,  this  work. 

46.  Talmud  Babli  'Hagigah  3 a\  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan 
div.  18. 

47.  ibidem  Sotah  49  (mtrnm  nvy  ntan  yie>.T"i  nosw). 


CHAPTER    VII 


1.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  58,  "All  the  sages  in  Israel 
are  like  peelings  of  garlic  in  comparison  with  this  bald  one, 
and  he  is  Rabbi  Akibah  son  of  Joseph,  and  his  father  was  a 
righteous  proselyte."    (pn  XSW\  VSN&2  >isf?  btiTW*  '03n  ^3 

pro  m  rwi  rcun  ejDv  p  ntpv  "an  Kim  nt  mpo.) 

2.  Talmud  Babli  Pesachim  49. 

3.  Ibidem  Nazir  35. 

4.  Ibidem  Kethuboth  62;  Nedarim  50. 

5.  She  married  him  on  condition  that  he  become  a  student 
of  the  Rabbi  (Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos)31  -IlS  n^TN  "]b  JOBTtpB  \X, 
and   upon  his  promise  she  lived  with  him  secretly,  nEHp^N 


294 


NOTES 


NyrVU  ^.  The  marriage  was  legal,  since  the  consideration 
might  have  been  money,  contract  or  coition,  IOC  P|D3  or  iiK*}. 
The  knowledge  of  this  fact  caused  Rachel's  father  to  drive  her 
from  his  house  (Babli  Kethuboth  62).  The  version  in  Neda- 
rin  50  differs  from  the  above  in  one  particular.  There  it  is 
said  that  she  betrothed  herself  to  him,  pp£  ntnpJVX,  and  after 
her  expulsion  from  her  father's  house  went  to  live  with  Aki- 
bah,  ,tS  nn^DJriW'l,  consummating  the  marriage  in  legal  form, 
ntTSJ  irb  rWpDI  iTlDJ  (comp.  Babli  Kiddushin  3  a  and  Ibidem 
Si>). 

6.  Talmud  Jerusalem  Sabbath  IV,  I. 

7.  The  "Golden  City"  (2ilT  IV  TJ?)  was  evidently  a  very 
large  golden  medallion  on  which  in  bas-relief  were  the  pictures 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple,  brilliant  with  many  precious 
jewels.  This  was  worn  upon  the  breast  pendent  from  a 
golden  chain  around  the  neck.  It  was  this  jewel  that  excited 
the  envy  of  Gamaliel's  wife.  This  jewel  was  a  mark  of  dis- 
tinction, and  was  worn  only  by  those  who  had  merited  the 
"Crown  of  the  Law."  By  her  devotion,  Rachel  had  given  to 
Israel  a  great  Master  of  the  Law  and  was  therefore  worthy  to 
wear  the  "Golden  City."  This  explanation  seems  to  be  con- 
firmed by  Nedarin  50,  where  the  expression  3HT  b&  "VJf  is 
found  instead  of  tCHY!  D^BTP.  Or  is  Akibah's  promise  to 
his  wife  indicative  of  his  future  revolutionary  activity,  of  the 
time  when  a  revolutionary  coin — nn»  JQDD — shall  have  its 
value,  Jerusalem  be  a  city  of  gold,  and  Rachel  a  princess  in 
Israel?  Who  could  adequately  measure  the  plans  and  ambi- 
tions of  this  strange  character  of  that  day? 

8.  The  historian  Graetz  is  wrong  in  stating  that  Akibah 
studied  first  under  Nahum  of  Gimsu  and  then  under  Eliezer. 
Nahum's  school  was  of  a  higher  order.  There  the  latest  de- 
cisions were  discussed,  and  a  certain  independent  exegetical 
exposition  taught  for  which  a  preparatory  knowledge  of  the 
tradiiional  law  was  required,  and  this  Akibah  could  have  got- 
ten only  in  Eliezer's  school.  Afterwards  he  attended  the  lec- 
tures of  Nahum,  from  whom  he  learned  the  method  of  apply- 


NOTES  295 

ing  certain  grammatical  rules  in  the  explanation  of  Holy  Writ. 
He  then  joined  the  two  systems  which  constitute  the  character- 
istic features  of  his  work.     (Comp.  Yebamoth   16;  Josts  Ge- 
schichte  des  Judenthums  und  seiner  Secten,  Vol  II,  p.  59.) 
9.    Talmud  Babli  Yebamoth  16. 

10.  Midrash  Rabba  Song  of  Songs  I,  3. 

11.  Ibidem. 

12.  "With  whom  dost  thou  busy  thyself?"  XT'  bv  SDyO  "•»• 

13.  ni3^n  kM  r^n  fan  ppi  yip  b  bv  wmb  T*w. 

14.  Talmud  Babli  Nazir  35. 

15.  Talmud  Babli  Yebamoth  62  speaks  of  three  hundred 
disciples,  while  Nedarin  50  and  Kethuboth  62  give  the  num- 
ber of  disciples  that  accompanied  Akibah  as  twelve  thousand. 
The  latter  statement  seems  impossible  from  the  fact  that  such 
an  army  would  have  excited  the  suspicion  of  Rome  and 
caused  the  instant  arrest  of  Akibah.  The  references,  there- 
fore, must  mean  that  Akibah  had  that  many  sympathizers,  men 
he  had  prepared  for  the  coming  struggle  with  Rome. 

16.  From  the  Talmudic  texts  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
(without  correction  of  the  reading)  the  exact  number  of  years 
Akibah  studied  at  either  of  the  schools.  The  historian  Jost 
(Geschichte  des  Judenthums  und  seiner  Secten,  Vol.  II,  p.  59), 
maintains  a  lofty  silence  on  this  point.  Perhaps  he  did  not 
know  and  therefore  did  not  attempt  to  draw  the  matter  under 
historical  consideration.  The  historian  Graetz  (History  of  the 
Jews,  Vol.  II,  p.  351-352,  English  translation),  assuming  it  to 
be  of  importance  regarding  the  revolutionary  activity  of  Aki- 
bah, refuses  to  accept  the  authority  of  'Hagigah  12,  where  it  is 
stated  that  he  studied  twenty-two  years.  There  the  number 
is  given  in  the  figures  D'Ot?  3"3.  But,  according  to  Kethu- 
both 62,  Akibah  spent  "twice  ten  years"  (per  "HD  nn)  at 
each  of  the  schools.  Assuming  that  there  is  a  mistake  in  the 
text,  and  that  "HD  "HJ1  stands  for  "iD'nri,  which  is  twelve, 
it  would  be  incorrect  grammatically,  since  "lD,-in  is  masculine 
and  "HD  is  feminine,  as  is  also  pJB>.  The  only  place  where 
Abikah's  period  of  study  at  each  school  is  given  as  twelve 


296  NOTES 

years  is  found  in  Nedarim  50,  pj£>  '""ID  'mil,  is  more  accurate. 
But  how  reconcile  the  different  readings?  I  am  inclined  to 
look  upon  the  figure  "HD  as  a  Rabbinical  interpolation  to  ex- 
aggerate the  constancy  between  Rachel  and  Akibah,  and  that 
the  text  should  properly  read  p:t?  THD,  "  two  years."  For  if 
we  consider  that  Akibah  went  to  Jerusalem  about  fifteen  years 
before  the  destruction  of  the  second  Temple,  how  could  he 
have  studied  twenty-two  years  in  the  holy  city?  How  could 
he,  after  another  twenty  two  years,  receive  the  greater  part  of 
the  vast  estate  of  Calbah  Shebuah?  For  even  if  the  latter 
survived  the  attack  of  the  Roman  destroyer,  which  is  doubtful, 
there  was  no  fortune  left  to  him.  He  had  no  ships  richly 
laden  in  the  harhor,  mention  of  which  is  made  in  the  Talmud 
(Jerusalemi  Nedarin  50).  Whereas  if  Akibah  had  studied  two 
years  at  each  school  and  then  returned  a  famous  scholar, 
which,  considering  his  fine  mind,  is  quite  possible,  he  would 
have  found  his  father-in-law  in  possession  of  his  great  wealth. 
Besides,  no  man  could  have  been  active  for  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury, as  Akibah  is  said  to  have  been,  and  not  be  known  to 
Calbah  Shebuah,  who  hearing  of  his  son-in-law's  acquired 
fame  would  have  hastened  to  take  him  to  his  heart. 

17.  Nahum  was  from  the  town  of  Gimsu,  but  was  styled 
"Gamsu"  because  of  his  saying.     (Talmud  Babli  Taanith  21.) 

18.  See  Supra. 

19.  The  expression  nnitO^  U  DJ  seems  to  me  to  be  the 
watchword  of  a  class  stoicism,  more  fatalistic  than  of  pious 
resignation.  It  was  just  such  a  motto  that  was  needed  to  en- 
courage the  supreme  effort  for  the  unequal  struggle  and  fortify 
the  patriots  against  torture  and  death;  that  is,  "come  what 
may,  we  will  fight  for  freedom." 

20.  Talmud  Babli  Taanith  21;  ibidem  Sanhedrin  108; 
Jerusalemi  Peah  88. 

21.  Talmud  Babli  'Hagigah  12;  Midrash  Rabba  Gene- 
sis I,  1. 

22.  Talmud  Babli  Nedarim  50. 

23.  Evidendy  Calbah  Shebuah  lived  a  secluded  life  in  his 


NOTES  297 

palace  in  the  same  town  where  his  daughter  lived  in  a  hovel. 
The  text  has  the  word  KJID^,  which  means  a  small  place. 
If  it  had  been  in  the  holy  city  itself,  the  word  D^fW  would 
have  been  mentioned. 

24.  Talmud  Babli  Nedarin  50;  ibidem  Kethuboth  62. 

25.  Ibidem  Zebachim  13;  Tosephta  to  Sanhedrin  div.  1. 

26.  Talmud  Jerusalemi    Shebiith  V,  7. 

27.  Ibidem  Nedarin  IX,  5. 

28.  Ibidem  Baba  Kama  VIII,  6. 

29.  Ibidem  Nedarim  IX,  5. 

30.  Patristric  Chapters  III,  13-16.  There  were  evidently 
some  Rabbis  who  objected  to  this  rule,  and  one  of  them  told  a 
fine  bit  of  satire  against  Akibah,  who  often  jested  about  those 
unable  to  control  their  passions.  One  day,  so  the  legend  runs, 
Satan,  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  woman,  approached  Rabbi 
Akibah,  to  seduce  him  to  sin.  Akibah  was  seized  with  sinful 
desires  and  followed  Satan.  When  they  had  gone  some  dis- 
tance the  seducer  revealed  his  identity  and  said,  "  If  the  heav- 
enly hosts  had  not  enjoined  upon  me  to  spare  thee  for  the  sake 
of  thy  learning,  I  should  have  made  of  thy  blood  two  running 
wells,  •'JttD  pmn  "|ft-6  rvm^ ;  that  is,  I  should  have  exposed 
thee  to  public  ridicule  and  killed  thee  morally."  (Talmud 
Babli  Kiddushin  81.) 

31.  Patristic  Chapters  III,  13. 

32.  Ibidem  III,  15. 

33.  Ibidem  III.  18. 

34.  It  was  a  great  effort,  and  was  called  by  Akibah's  con- 
temporaries "Mishnayoth  de  Rabbi  Akibah,"  also  "Middoth 
de  Rabdi  Akibah."  This  system  was  later  adopted  by  all 
other  writers,  notaby  Rabbi  Juda,  the  Prince. 

35.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Shekalim  V,  1. 

36.  The  word  DTiD  is  held  to  be  the  Notarikon  or  initials 
of  the  words  trilD  (plain  interpretation),  TED  (hint,  an  explana- 
tion based  upon  the  intrinsic  value,  either  in  position  or  in 
numeric  value  of  a  letter  or  word,  and  is  also  termed  NnDDJ 
(geometric),  KTH  (exegesis  or  homiletical  explanation),  and  11D 


298  NOTES 

(secret  or  mystic  interpretation)  to  which  belongs  the  cabalistic 
form  of  placing  the  scattered  letters  of  the  Tetragrammaton, 
by  means  of  which  the  adepts  were  thought  to  be  able  to 
perform  miracles. 

37.  Talmud  Babli  'Hagigah  14. 

38.  See  "Josua  ben  Hananiah." 

39.  Talmud  Babli  Abodah  Zara  55. 

40.  NJ1D  N^nn?  seems  to  indicate  some  strategic  point  of 
the  Romans,  probably  a  town  near  a  Roman  camp. 

41.  Tny  2vb  worn  Tnjn  fa. 

42.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  60. 

43.  Ibidem  Abodah  Zara  54. 

44.  Ibidem  55. 

45.  Ibidem  Sabbath  8. 

46.  Ibidem  Baba  Kama  1 13. 

47.  See  "Josua  ben  'Hananiah." 

48.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Bathra  10. 

49.  Talmud  Babli  Abodah  Zara  20,  m1^^  fTTnin  pn£> 
!"6  21D31 ;  comp.  Seder  ha-Doroth  ad  loco. 

50.  Conversions  of  Romans  to  Judaism  were  not  at  all 
rare.  Poppaea,  the  wife  of  Nero,  was  a  Jewess,  and  was 
buried  by  that  Emperor  in  accordance  with  Jewish  rites  (Taci- 
tus Annalium  Lib.  XVI,  6,  "Post  finem  ludicri,  Poppaea 
mortem  obiit.  .  .  Corpus  non  igni  abolitum,  ut  Romanus  mos; 
sed  regum  externorum  consuetudine,  dissertum  odoribus  con- 
ditur,  tumuloque  Iuliorum  insertur."  Juvenal  says,  "They 
listen  to  the  whisperings  of  old  Jews,  to  the  mumblings  of  old 
Jewesses,  with  devout  attention"  (VI,  541).  "Those  whom 
dreams  have  made  anxious,  seek  consolation  in  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion" (ibidem  544). 

51.  Talmud  Babli  Nedarin  66. 

52.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Rosh  ha-Shanah  56. 

53.  The  Rabbinical  legend  of  Bar  Kochba's  origin  is 
very  curious.  According  to  it  the  Jewish  leader  was  the  child 
of  a  princess  in  Arabia  of  Jewish  race  as  well  as  her  husband, 
though  both  were  black  in  color.     The  child,  however,  was 


NOTES  299 

born  white.  The  Moorish  prince  suspected  his  wife  of  infi- 
delity, and  debated  whether  he  ought  not  to  put  both  her  and 
the  child  to  death.  Hadrian,  before  becoming  Emperor,  had 
been  Governor  of  Syria  and  had  visited  the  Jewish  prince's 
house,  and  possibly  had  been  unduly  intimate  with  his  wife. 
Still  the  Moor  hesitated,  and  he  consulted  Akibah,  who  at  the 
time  happened  to  come  to  his  house,  as  to  what  he  ought  to 
believe.  The  Rabbi  was  struck  with  the  possible  political  ad- 
vantages to  be  realized  for  his  own  plans  from  control  of  a  son 
of  the  proudest  house  of  Rome.  Such  a  one,  trained  in  the 
wild  life  of  the  desert,  might  become  a  suitable  leader  in  ma- 
ture life  for  his  adopted  countrymen  against  the  Roman  le- 
gions. His  crafty  mind  soon  suggested  how  this  might  be 
done,  even  while  the  distracted  Moor  was  urgently  asking 
what  he  thought.  It  was  commonly  said  of  him  that  he  could 
find  a  reason  for  anything,  and  on  this  occasion  he  found  a 
plausible  one  for  the  appearance  of  a  white  infant  in  a  dark- 
skinned  household. 

He  asked  if  there  were  perchance  statues  or  pictures  of 
white  color  in  the  royal  bedchamber,  and  when  the  Moor  re- 
plied there  were,  the  Rabbi  quoted  Jacob's  stratagem  for  mak- 
ing Laban's  sheep  bring  forth  white  or  spotted  sheep  at  his 
will.  The  simple  warrior  accepted  the  explanation  and  reared 
the  boy  as  his  own.  When  grown  to  manhood  his  mother,  who 
possibly  had  been  so  instructed  beforehand,  sent  her  son  to 
Akibah,  whose  plot  was  then  ripe  for  an  outbreak  in  Judea. 

Akibah's  keen  vision  at  once  recognized  in  him,  who  com- 
bined with  gigantic  physical  powers  a  fervent  patriotism 
implanted  by  his  mother's  teachings,  a  fitting  leader  for  the 
Jewish  rebels.  He  brought  him  out  before  the  people  as  their 
heaven-sent  leader,  and  the  people  obeyed  his  word. 

The  Unknown  demanded  a  test  of  their  sincerity.  He  re- 
quired that  all  who  were  ready  to  go  forth  to  batde  should 
show  their  indifference  to  pain  by  cutting  off  a  finger  on  the 
right  hand  of  each.  Two  hundred  thousand  at  once  complied. 
Then  the  elder  men  remonstrated  that  it  was  not  well  to  maim 


300  NOTES 

soldiers.  They  suggested  that  instead  of  mutilation  each  re- 
cruit should  be  required  to  tear  a  young  cedar  up  by  the  roots 
as  a  test.  Two  hundred  thousand  more  tore  up  cedars  and 
piled  them  before  their  leader. 

It  may  well  be  that  people  asked  who  is  this  man  whom 
Akibah,  the  foremost  sage  in  Israel,  so  honors?  What  is  his 
name?  Whence  does  he  come?  Akibah's  answer  silenced 
these  inquiries  as  he  had  silenced  the  jealous  fears  of  the 
Moorish  prince.  His  name  was  Bar  Kochba,  the  Son  of  the 
Star,  the  Star  of  Jacob,  come  according  to  prophecy  to  crush 
the  enemies  of  the  Lord  and  his  people,  the  Messiah.  It  was 
enough  to  know  that  the  "Star  of  Jacob"  had  arisen  and  to 
obey  him.  The  Messiah  had  no  birthplace;  he  needed  no 
name;  for  all  Holy  Names  were  his. 

None  ventured  to  question  this  decree  of  the  greatest  sage 
in  Israel,  especially  at  a  time  when  the  coolest  were  throbbing 
with  the  hope  of  national  freedom  and  glory.  The  people  ac- 
cepted the  leader,  though  he  looked  rather  a  demi-god  of  the 
heathen  pantheon  than  a  Hebrew. 

Some  there  were  who  knew  Hadrian,  and  wondered  in  their 
hearts  at  the  resemblance  between  the  Roman  persecutor  and 
the  supposed  Messiah.  Their  suspicions  spread  among  the 
people. 

Bar  Kochba  was  neither  morally  nor  intellectually  great. 
He  was  only  a  splendid  warrior,  fierce  of  soul,  mighty  of  frame. 
When  his  power  decayed  the  people  began  to  call  him  not 
Son  of  the  Star,  Bar  Kochba,  but  Son  of  Lies — Bar  Kozeba. 
Akibah  may  well  have  reflected  how  much  of  truth  was  in  the 
popular  name;  for  was  not  Hadrian  to  himself  the  very  Arch- 
Liar  who  had  broken  all  promises  to  Israel? 

In  years  long  afterwards,  when  the  aspiration  for  national 
independence  had  been  long  quenched  in  Jewish  breasts,  a 
man  arose  in  the  Council  of  Israel  which  still  maintained  a 
precarious  authority  under  Reman  rule.  This  was  Rabbi  Ju- 
dah,  the  Prince,  the  lineal  descendant  of  Hillel.  Judah  placed 
the  solemn  ban  on  any  Jew  who  should  henceforth  presume  to 


NOTES  301 

appropriate  to  mortal  the  title  of  "Star  of  Jacob"  (see  Midrash 
Rabba    Genesis,  Parshah    75;  ibidem    Numbers    chapter   V; 
ibidem  Lamentations  II,  2;  Talmud  Babli  Gittin  57). 
54-    3p]H3  3313  -pri. 

55.  See  Dio  Cassius  I,  69. 

55  a.    Midrash  Rabba  Echah  II,  2,  3T13  K^«  3313  npn  hit- 
55^.    Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  74,  DH3  mot'  ^Xl  DH3  Til. 

56.  Ibidem  Berachoth  61  ;  ibidem  Pesachim  1  12. 

57.  Ibidem  Berachoth  61. 

58.  Ibidem  Berachoth  16.  "With  all  thy  soul,  even  if  thy 
soul  be  taken  from  thee  on  account  thereof."    I^SN  "|t?SJ  ?33 

59.  Ibidem. 

60.  "  Monuments  are  not  erected  over  the  graves  of  the 
righteous;  their  sayings  are  their  monuments."  mt^QJ  DV1J?  }'N 
DJ11DT  DH  Dnnm  D'pHvi?  (Midrash  Rabba  Genesis  div.  82). 

61 .  Ibidem  div.  23. 

62.  Jv!>JJ3  m33DB>  H3xta  nf>na.  Comp.  Aboth  de  Rabbi 
Nathan  div.  II. 

63.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Metziah  62. 

64.  Ibidem. 

65.  Ibidem  Yoma  85.  This  utterance  is  enhanced  by  the 
further  statement  that  the  sinner  is  not  he  who  transgresses 
against  the  personality  of  the  deity,  by  philosophical  specula- 
tion, but  he  who  sins  against  man  by  unkindness  and  injustice. 
The  former  finds  forgiveness,  if  he  seeks  it,  on  the  day  of 
Atonement,  "ID3D  DniSSn  DV-  The  latter,  that  is  he  who 
offends  his  fellow-man,  must  ask  his  pardon  ere  he  can  hope 
to  be  forgiven,  1T3I1  T1K  IWVB>  IV- 

66.  Talmud  Babli  'Hagigah  15. 

67.  Ibidem  Sotah  17. 

68.  Ibidem  Sanhedrin  77. 

69.  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan  III. 

70.  Tosephta  Berachoth  58. 

71.  Talmud  Babli  Kethuboth  62.  Rabbi  Akibah's  daugh- 
ter imitated  the  self-sacrifice  of  her  mother  for  the  sake  of  the 


302  NOTES 

Law,  living  alone  while  her  husband,  Ben  Azzai,  devoted  him- 
self  to  study,  \y*tt\  W1  W  p&  .t6  SH3y  WpJJ  '311  fiTTD 

wm  Haw  id  tok  naiya  n!?tn  N^m  "ina  K^m  'bwk  no&n. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


1.  Talmud  Babli  'Hagigah  15,  »jnit  lSD3  N'3^py  "31  fifths 

nonnn  vyb  lEnnoji  min. 

2.  It  is  not  certain  what  was  his  real  name.  Mair  was 
merely  titular  and  signified  that  he  was  "an  Enlightener." 
He  was  also  referred  to  by  the  Chaldaic-speaking  Rabbis  as 
"Nehorai,"  which  also  means  a  bearer  of  light,  one  who  had 
intellectual  ability  to  explain  the  Law.     DJ  N"lpJ  rpfl  VRO  '31 

nabm  D^con  *T£bn  *j»y  Tnao  n^ntj>  »mvu  *3i  p  (Talmud 

Babli  Sabbath  147;  ibidem,  Erubin  13). 

3.  Ibidem  Gittin  57;  Tacitus  historia  I,  2;  ibid.  II,  S. 

4.  Rabbi  Mair  derives  the  word  111D  (Lamentations  4,  15) 
from  the  Greek  avpelv,  to  pull,  to  drag  away  (Midrash  Rabba, 
Leviticus,  chapter  14,  2). 

5.  Talmud  Babli  Erubin  13,  ntOOl  "linn  KOtf  bv  "HOIK  KIIW 

d"jq  ib  nMioi  kod  ninta  byi  cjs  ii>. 

6.  Vide  Sepher  Shaarai  Teshubah  by  Rabbi  Hai  Gaon. 

7.  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth  82,  riJOX  1J3  DIN  ID^  cbiyb 

ni)pi  mpa. 

8.  Talmud  Babli  Gittin  24.  He  is  termed  n?3?  (from  the 
Latin  libellarius  a  writer  of  books);  he  was  an  author  who 
wrote  for  others;  that  is,  he  cared  more  for  the  gain  than  the 
glory. 

9.  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth  II,  18. 

10.  Talmud  Babli  Erubin  13. 

1 1.  Ibidem  Sanhedrin  14. 

12.  Ibidem  Erubin  13. 

13.  Ibidem  Sanhedrin  24,  1T3  1T  pITlttl  Dnn  "Ifl  "Ipiy. 


NOTES  303 

14.  The  dignity  of  "  Haham,"  or  academic  reader,  was  evi- 
dently instituted  by  Simon  the  son  of  Gamaliel  II.  Before 
that  time  there  was  but  a  JJllfl,  interpreter,  and  this  office 
did  not  equal  the  dignity  of  Haham  (see  Babli  Berachoth  27; 
comp.  Jost's  Geschichte  des  Judenthums  und  seiner  Secten 
II,  1 10). 

15.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Moed  Katon  III,  1  fol.  81  a. 

16.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Bathra  8. 

17.  There  never  was  a  time  in  the  history  of  the  Jews  when 
the  ]*1Nn  DJ?  —  "das  Landvolk,"  as  the  German  has  it  —  was 
educationally  superior  to  the  teachers  of  the  Law,  from  Moses 
down  to  the  last  of  the  Rabbis,  yet  there  is  no  record  to  show 
that  they  were  condemned  on  account  of  their  ignorance. 
"Am  ha-Aretz"  must  mean,  therefore,  a  materialist,  a  sensual- 
ist, a  man  whose  mind  centered  on  earthly  pleasures,  an  Epi- 
cure. 

18.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Tehoroth  VIII,  18,  pKH  DJ?  ITJEn 

19.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  17. 

20.  Ibidem  Sanhedrin,  mrjlN  TO  nj^C  "IVDVD  D1NK>  JDT3 

21.  Ibidem  Abodah  Zara  17. 

22.  Ibidem  Berachoth  10. 

23.  Ibidem. 

24.  Ibidem  Erubin  53. 

25.  Ibidem. 

26.  Yalkut  Mishleh,  paragraph  963. 

27.  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth  chapter  VII,  12,  and  with 
some  variations  in  Babli  Abodah  Zara  18. 

28.  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth. 

29.  Ibidem  Genesis  div.  48,  i-I'DlE^a  -\bn  Nmpf>  JT^y. 

30.  Ibidem  Koheleth  IV,  3. 

31.  Talmud  Babli  Yoma  83,  »3  IDNJET  K171  JJBH  DIN  "DP 

nnn  rnaiann  "in. 

32.  Ibidem,  NK'CW  »JT3  rv6  l>B>DB>  *m  Nc6n.  The  Rabbis 
believed    in   dreams   as   significant   of    coming    events,    but 


3°4 


NOTES 


dreams  which  were  due  to  indigestion,  that  is  immediately  af- 
ter eating,  were  not  considered  the  workings  of  the  alter  anima, 
and  were  not  looked  upon  as  divine  inspirations. 

33.  The  term  iTIEJI  (from  the  Latin  notarius)  means  "he 
wrote";  but  may  here  have  the  double  meaning  of  watching; 
while  writing  he  also  watched  the  house  of  the  untrustworthy 
host. 

34.  Ibidem. 

35.  Ibidem,    Sanhedrin   11,  ^KHp   DDD  nnX  »31   "6   m»K 

36.  nnj?  nB>K3  nnnx.  In  Babli  Minachoth  44  a  story 
is  told  of  the  same  disciple  quite  unfit  for  reproduction,  as  it 
fits  more  readily  in  the  Decameron  of  Boccaccio,  though  the 
Talmudic  writers  would  cloak  the  story  as  if  the  student  had 
withstood  the  temptations  of  Satan,  the  trial  of  a  Saint. 

37.  The  Seder  ha-Doroth  refers  to  this  fact. 

38.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Sabbath  I,  5. 

39.  Aboth  IV,  12. 

40.  Talmud  Babli  Yebamoth  121. 

41.  Ibidem,  Sabbath  25,  rtt?jn  nn  TW\i  h  SS^S?  "ID  bl- 

42.  Ibidem  Yoma  86. 

43.  Aboth  IV,  12. 

44.  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth  I;  Babli  Sabbath  153. 

45.  Midrash  Rabba  Genesis  div.  9. 

46.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  'Hagigah  II,  1. 

47.  Talmud  Babli 'Hagigah  15. 

48.  Ibidem,  rWlSO  pDQ  K^  »3W  IDT  "iriK. 

49.  Ibidem  14,  DTIB2  1DJ3J  nyZDN  ;  comp.  our  note  to 
"Akibah." 

50.  Ibidem  15.  The  resemblance  of  Achar  to  Paul  has 
been  remarked  by  many.  The  difficulties  of  the  dates  are  not 
so  serious  as  to  be  an  obstacle  to  a  favorable  comparison. 
They  were  not  over-accurate  in  those  days.  Facts  are  cogni- 
zable by  certain  references  to  some  remarkable  personage,  and 
persons  may  be  identified  by  a  consideration  of  certain  facts. 
Thus  we  recognize  the  character  of  Paul  as  described  in  the 


NOTES  305 

New  Testament  and  Achar  as  described  in  the  Talmud  to  be 
one.  Paul  was  a  learned  Hebrew,  who  said  of  himself  that  he 
sat  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel.  But  Gamaliel  was  a  contemporary 
of  Rabbi  Yochanan  ben  Zakkai,  at  whose  feet  sat  Achar.  Both 
are  "Inquirers" — scholars  in  the  rabbinic  academy.  Both  are 
excellent  Greek  scholars.  Both  turn  from  the  ancient  concep- 
tion that  the  Jew  must  suffer  on  account  of  the  sins  of  the 
fathers,  must  suffer  on  account  of  "Exile";  suffer  in  hopes  of 
the  coming  of  a  Messiah;  suffer  because  the  Jew  was  a  crea- 
ture apart;  suffer  because  the  small  men  in  Judea  had  great 
ambitions,  and  through  their  bickerings  brought  down  the 
wrath  of  Rome  alike  upon  the  just  and  the  unjust.  The  whole 
life  of  the  Jew  was  made  up  of  "don'ts,"  which  "the  coming 
of  the  Messiah  would  abrogate."  The  esthetic  mind  of  this 
man — call  him  Paul  or  Achar — revolted  against  this  thraldom, 
against  this  religion  of  suffering  called  into  existence  by  fanat- 
ics fighting  for  a  dead  cause.  The  Greeks  adored  beauty, 
which  made  them  happy.  The  Romans  loved  strength,  and 
lived  for  power  and  glory.  The  character  of  this  man  Achar 
and  this  man  Paul  seems  to  stand  out  as  one  viewed  from  the 
point  of  their  thoughts  for  mundane  convenience.  Achar  rode 
horseback  on  the  Sabbath.  Paul  permitted  the  eating  of  the 
food  of  the  Gentiles.  Achar,  it  is  said,  loved  Greek  song,  so 
did  Paul.  Achar,  having  delved  deeply  into  the  mysteries  of 
the  metaphysics  of  his  day,  believed,  as  the  Talmud  says,  in  a 
duality  of  divine  persons — in  the  alter  ego.  Paul,  too,  "saw" 
and  grew  firm  in  the  faith  of  Jesus  as  the  Christ.  That  Paul, 
or  rather  Achar,  firmly  believed  that  the  faith  in  Jesus,  the 
Christ,  would  bring  happiness  to  the  Jewish  people,  is  certain. 
It  is  evident  that  Paul  desired  to  bring  about  a  better  under- 
standing between  Hebrew  and  heathen.  To  the  Hebrew,  by 
a  better  appreciation  of  the  manners  of  the  heathens,  by  a  less 
strict  observance  of  man-made  laws,  a  newer  and  a  freer  spirit 
would  come.  To  the  heathen,  if  he  could  be  brought  to  be- 
lieve in  the  love  and  mercy  of  God,  in  a  faith  based  on  vicari- 
ous atonement,  a  nobler  and  more  humane  consciousness  would 


306  NOTES 

be  his.  Both  Hebrew  and  heathen  might  join  hands  in  the 
knowledge  that  each  had  conceded  to  the  other  without  loss  to 
either,  and  with  great  spiritual  and  material  gain  to  both. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the  character  and  the  aim  of  Achar 
as  described  in  the  Talmud,  and  this  precisely  is  the  character 
of  Paul  as  described  in  the  New  Testament.  These  analogies 
are  striking,  but  more  remarkable  is  the  fact  that  Paul  is  the 
only  personage  of  those  times  whose  name  becomes  conspicu- 
ous as  a  great  interrogation-point  by  its  absence.  Christ  and 
his  apostles  are  mentioned  in  the  Talmud;  in  places  some  arc* 
mentioned  distinctly  and  by  name;  in  others  again  the  disci- 
ples are  mentioned  under  the  general  name  Talmidai.  All, 
or  nearly  all,  the  Roman  Emperors  and  the  governors  of  Ju- 
daea are  mentioned  by  name;  all  —  some  directly,  others  sub 
rosa  —  all,  except  Paul,  the  very  creator  of  dogmatic  Christi- 
anity. But  it  is  our  firm  belief  —  reasoning  by  the  deductions 
from  the  above  suggestions,  that  Saul  —  who  became  another 
in  faith  for  which  he  became  Pau-ul  —  a  worker — is  none  other 
than  Elisha,  whom  the  Rabbis  stigmatized  as  Achar,  Another 
in  Faith. 

51.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Hagigah  II,  i; 

52.  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  118;  ibidem  Chulin  2. 

53.  Midrash  Rabba  Koheleth  7. 

54.  Babli  'Hagigah  15. 

55.  Jerusalemi  Kilayim  at  the  end. 

56.  Babli  Sotah  49. 

57.  Ibidem,  Hagigah  15,  NltDIp  pi^D  TNJO  "Gil  KE-DJ  W  »3 

insn  NinpD. 

58.  Aboth  IV. 

59.  Babli  Hagigah  15. 

60.  Aboth  IV. 


NOTES  307 


CHAPTER  IX 

1.  Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  14. 

2.  Ibidem  Abodah  Zara  8. 

3.  Ibidem  Berachoth  32. 

4.  Ibidem  Sanhedrin  14. 

5.  Ibidem  Sabbath  113;  Midrash  Rabba  Leviticus  div.  34. 

6.  Midrash  Rabba  Leviticus  div.  21. 

7.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Sanhedrin  div.  I,  2,  fol.  19,  '"JN^  "]"f\ 

8.  Talmud  Babli  Gittin  67,  inHE  mOTiriO  rilft'nn  TiriE^ 

9.  Ibidem    Rosh    ha^Shanah    18;    Sifri  to  Deuteronomy 
div.  31. 

10.  Midrash  Rabba  Leviticus  div.  21. 

11.  Talmud  Babli  Succah  21. 

12.  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan  18,  xy^p  KV101  TWin  |rTlO. 

13.  Ibidem;  comp.  Babli  Gittin  67,  NJJOp  rDK'El  natri  njt£» 

injti'D  bv  pniD  rasao  xinK>  rm 

14.  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  33. 

15.  Ibidem. 

16.  Ibidem;  comp.  Midrash  Rabba  Genesis  div.  79, 

17.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Sabbath  fol.  3. 

18.  Ibidem  Shebbiith  fol.  9. 

19.  Graetz,  Geschichte,  etc.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  492. 

20.  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  33  £  and  34  a  says  that  the 
Prophet  Elijah  appeared  at  the  mouth  of  the  cave  and  told 
them  that  the  Roman  Emperor  had  died.  The  simple  fact 
may  be  that  Eleazer,  who  lived  less  secluded,  had  brought  the 
news  of  the  accession  to  the  throne  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and 
that  it  was  now  safe  to  return. 

21.  Ibidem    Berachoth   31,    p\TW  VD   nitfta^   DIN^  11DX 

nrn  d^ijd. 

22.  Ibidem  Sabbath  33.  Here  we  have  another  remarka- 
ble analogy  to  the  words  of  Christ;  comp.  Matt.  10,  29. 


308  NOTES 

23.  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  33. 

24.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Shebiith  9. 

25.  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  33. 

26.  Midrash  Rabba  Numbers  div.  52. 

27.  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  33. 

28.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Shebiith  9,  PiTny  rm3DSP  nj?Of 

29.  Talmud  Babli  Yoma  57.  The  Emperor's  daughter 
mentioned  here  was  the  beautiful  Lucilla,  afterwards  the  wife 
of  Verus.  Jost  (Geschichte  des  Judenthums  und  seiner  Secten, 
Vol.  II,  p.  93,  note)  mentions  Christian  sources  according  to 
which  this  miracle  was  performed  by  Papis,  the  Bishop  of 
Hierapolis. 

30.  Talmud  Babli  Megillah  12. 

31.  Ibidem  Succah  30. 

32.  Midrash  Rabba  Genesis  div.  86. 

33.  "  Patristic  Chapters." 

34.  Talmud  Babli  Sabbath  113. 

35.  Ibidem  118. 

36.  Midrash  Rabba  Leviticus  div.  19. 

37.  "Patristic  Chapters"  III,  7. 

38.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  7,  iriV  mm  ^  ilPiet?  i»1*M 
rniOQ  ;  compare  the  maxim  in  the  Patristic  Chapters, 
ntPJTDPI  N^N  ~)p*yr\  tmon  &6l —  the  principle  of  human  effort 
is  not  centered  in  theorizing,  but  in  practical  righteousness. 

39.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Metziah  58. 

40.  Ibidem  Berachoth  31,  pin^  VB  niN^  DIkS  TIDN. 
The  word  pint?  means  frivolous  jest ;  "  a  loud  laughter  be- 
speaks a  vacant  mind." 

41.  The  term  D'OKTI  n^O,  must  be  understood  in  the 
sense  of  "  love  of  Heaven,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  term 
NLSn  J1NT,  which  means  "  fear  of  sin." 

42.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Peah  I. 

43.  Talmud  Babli  Pesachim  87. 

44.  Ibidem  Baba  Metziah  58. 

45.  Ibidem  Kethuboth  67. 


NOTES  309 

46.  Ibidem  Sotah  32. 

47.  Ibidem. 

48.  Where  business  is  not  the  aim  but  the  end  of  human 
effort,  it  is  sinful. 

49.  Talmud  Babli  Sotah  32.  This  bit  of  sarcasm,  keen 
and  well  applied,  refers  to  the  Patriarch  Simon  ben  Gamaliel, 
who  was  proud  of  his  position  without  having  commensurate 
knowledge. 

50.  Midrash  Rabba  Numbers  div.  II. 

51.  Ibidem  Koheleth. 

52.  Talmud  Babli  Nedarin  49. 

53.  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan  50. 

54.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  55. 

56.  Midrash  Rabba  "Song  of  Songs." 

57.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Metziah  83. 

58.  Ibidem,  iTD"i:6  DHp  'OHpK  D"J1  Kin  pmo  OX  'K 

nvn  t6^a  nrrrajj  w  nvmay  Tay  kp  onp  son  byis  '« 

■TDani  wn  ttau  k!>  w  ynru 

59.  By  the  term  p^  p  fEin  the  Rabbi  desired  to  put  it 
to  Eleazer  that  he  was  destroying  the  noble  work  of  his  father, 
who  was  like  good  old  wine. 

60.  Talmud  Babli  Baba  Metzia  83. 

61.  Ibidem. 

62.  Ibidem. 

63.  Ibidem  Sanhedrin  65. 

64.  Midrash  Rabba  "Song  of  Songs,"  6. 

65.  Talmud  Babli  Yebamoth  65. 

66.  Ibidem  Baba  Metziah  83. 

67.  Ibidem  Yoma  85,  DniSDH  DV  P«  DIV??  D1X  ?2V  nmay 

man  n«  nxvB>  ly  naao. 

68.  Ibidem  Taanith  20. 

69.  Ibidem  Baba  Metzia  83.  Rabbi  Samuel  bar  Nachmani 
said,  "Rabbi  Eleazer's  wife  told  the  mother  of  Rahbi  Jona- 
than who  told  me,  that  Eleazer's  body  lay  in  the  attic  not  less 
than  eighteen  years  nor  more  than  twenty  years." 

70.  Ibidem. 


310  NOTES 


7i. 

Ibidem. 

72. 

Ibidem. 

73- 

Ibidem. 

74- 

Ibidem. 

CHAPTER   X 


1.  Some  of  the  writers  on  this  subject,  in  the  Middle  Ages 
as  well  as  in  modern  times,  maintain  that  the  Prince  did  not 
write  the  Mishnah,  but  that  he  compiled  it  mentally,  and  it 
was  thus  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  until 
the  conditions  in  the  sixth  century  made  it  necessary  to  com- 
mit it  to  writing.  Their  argument  is  based  on  the  Talmudi- 
cal  principle  that   the  oral  law  must  not   be  written  down, 

nnan  poxb  ^tn  fins  'N  na  byzw  nnm  (Babn  Gittin  60 

and  Temurah  14).  While  others,  like  Maimonides,  Samuel 
ha-Nagid,  Rabenu  Nissim,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Geiger, 
Zacharias  Frankel  and  I.  H.  Weiss  in  his  excellent  work  Dor 
Dor  ve-Dorshov  (III,  244),  hold  that  the  Prince  did  write  the 
Mishnah.     We  think  this  the  correct  opinion. 

2.  Talmud  Babli  Berachoth  28,  r»33  DID  pKt?  T»f>n  f>3 

DJ3"  btf- 

3.  Ibidem  Kiddushin  72.  Akibah  was  executed  in  the 
year  137  A.C. 

4.  Ibidem  Meilah  17. 

5.  Ibidem  Rosh  ha-Shanah  25  and  26. 

6.  Ibidem  26  £  and  Megillah  18. 

7.  Ibidem  Pesachim  41  ;  Baba  Kamma  82. 

8.  Ibidem  Pesachim  94;  Yoma  25. 

9.  Ibidem  Yebamoth  84;  MenachothiS;  Erubini3;  Me- 
gillah 20;  Shebuoth  13;  Sabbath  147. 

10.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Kilayim  IX,  4.  The  Prince  of  the 
Captivity  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  from  the  male  line  of 
David,  while  Rabbi  Juda  was  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  and 
from  the  female  line. 


NOTES  311 

11.  Ibidem. 

12.  Ibidem, 

13.  Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  38. 

14.  Ibidem  Kethuboth  25  and  27;  Taanith  17. 
1  c.  Ibidem  Sabbath  II. 

16.  Ibidem. 

17.  Mechilta  to  Parshah  Bo  div.  18. 

18.  Patristic  Chapters  II,  1. 

19.  WnnD  '113  robn  ;  see  Mebho  ha-Talmud. 

20.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Megillah  I,  7;  Babli  Megillah  5. 

21.  Jerusalemi  Kethuboth  II,  6;  Babli  Megillah  22. 

22.  Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  5. 

23.  Ibidem  Berachoth  30. 

24.  Ibidem  Sabbath  46  and  48;  Betzah  26. 

25.  Ibidem  Taanith  14. 

26.  Ibidem  Yebamoth  64. 

27.  Ibidem;  Baba  Bathrah  90;  Yoma  83;  Pesachim  90. 

28.  Ibidem  Kethuboth  no. 

29.  There  is  no  such  book;  but  Samuel  tried  to  show  the 
Prince  that  he  understood  the  motive  clearly. 

30.  Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  5,  p?  "p"30  'JK. 

31.  Ibidem  Chulin  6.     The  Prince  permitted  bathing  on 
certain  fast  days  and  the  performance  of  labor  on  certain  festi 
vals  (Megillah   5).     He  released  farmers  from  paying  tithes 
and  stopping  work  on  the  Year  of  Rest  (Shemitah)  where  cer- 
tain lands  were  not  formerly  a  part  of  the  Holy  Land. 

32.  Ibidem. 

33.  The  Nethinim  were  of  Gentile  origin  or  of  Hebrew 
mothers  and  Gentile  fathers  (see  Babli  Yebamoth  16;  Jerusa- 
lemi Kiddushin  IV). 

34.  Talmud  Babli  Kiddushin  71,  T#3  pDHPB  Dnx  D-V1p. 

35.  Ibidem  Baba  Bathra  8. 

36.  Ibidem  Makkoth  10. 

37.  By  Artaban  is  probably  meant  one  of  the  Nabathean 
Kings,  Aretas,  under  whom  the  Judaeans  fought  against  the 
Romans. 


312  NOTES 

38.  The  Script  (Mezuzah)  was  probably  sent  in  a  case  of 
precious  metal.  The  word  71B  means  a  husk  or  shell,  and 
the  Heathen  saw  no  particular  value  in  the  gift. 

39.  Talmud  Jerusalemi  Berachoth  89. 

40.  Talmud  Babli  Chulin  87. 

41.  Rappaport,  Krochmal,  Jost  and  other  historians  are  in 
doubt  about  the  identity  of  the  Emperor  who  was  the  Prince's 
friend.  We  are  less  concerned  about  the  man  than  about  the 
fact  that  such  an  intimacy  existed.  Whether  all  the  stories  are 
true  is  also  of  small  importance.  That  the  Heathen  Emperor 
consulted  the  Jewish  sage  about  family  affairs  is  probable; 
equally  probable  it  is  that  the  Roman  Emperor,  having  confi- 
dence in  the  wisdom  of  the  Patriarch,  spoke  to  him  of  matters 
of  state,  as  Hadrian  with  Rabbi  Josua  ben  Hananiah. 

42.  By  the  term  "Rabbi"  or  Master  is  always  meant  Juda 
the  Prince  (see  Maimonides,  Introduction  to  Mishnah  Zeraim). 

43.  Talmud  Babli  Sanhedrin  91. 

44.  Ibidem. 

45.  Ibidem. 

46.  Ibidem  27;  Yebamoth  49;  Hagigah  14.  Mention  is 
made  of  Mishnath  de  Rabbi  Akibah,  Mishnath  de  Rabbi  Eli- 
ezer  ben  Yacob  and  the  seven  hundred  divisions  of  Tanaaim. 

47.  The  word  Mishnah,  nJCD,  is  from  the  root  mK>,  and,  like 
the  Aramaic  NJJ1,  means  both  to  repeat,  teach  and  learn,  as  the 
word  Talmud,  from  the  root  *1D$>,  means  to  teach  and  to  learn. 

48.  The  word  Gamarah,  &OOJ,  from  the  root  1D3,  means 
to  finish  or  to  complete,  the  work  of  the  Prince. 

49.  The  full  titles  of  the  Mishnah,  its  divisions  and  sec- 
tions, are  as  follows : 

Name  of  Series  Number  of  Divisions 

I  Zeraim  (D'jnt),  Seeds XI 

I I  Moed  (lyiD),  Festivals XII 

I I I  Nashim  (D^'J),  Women VII 

IV  Nezikin  (pps?J),  Damages X 

V  Kodashim  (D^np),  Sacred  Things XI 

VI  Teharoth  (mints ),  Purifications XII 


NOTES  313 

I.    Zeraim 

Name  of  Division  Number  of  Section 

I  Berachoth  (ni3")3),  Prayers IX 

II  Peah  (PlKS),  Corner VIII 

III  Demai  0ND1),  Uncertain VII 

IV  Kilayim  (0^3),  Mixtures IX 

V  Shebiith  (rvjTSt?),  Sabbath  Year X 

VI  Therumoth  (ni»1"in),  Offerings XI 

VII  Maaseroth  (nnCJ'SJO),  Tithes V 

VIII  Maaser  Sheni  (*iJB>  "it?JJ»),  Second  Tithe.  .  .  V 

IX  Challah  (rr?n),  Dough   IV 

X  Orlah  (n^lJJ),  Buds,  First  Fruit Ill 

XI  Bikkurim  (Dni33),  First  Fruit  Offering  ..  .  Ill 

II.     MOED 

I  Sabbath  (MP),  Sabbath XXIV 

II  Erubin  (j^ny),  Combinations X 

I I I  Pesachim  (DTIDD),  Passover X 

IV  Shekalim  (D*!?pB>),  Shekels VIII 

V  Yoma  (NOV),  The  Day VIII 

VI  Succah  (H31D),  Tabernacles VIII 

VII  Betza  (IW3),  The  Egg V 

VIII  Rosh  ha-Shana  (rUPfl  B>N"l),  New  Year IV 

IX  Taanith  (n^yn),  Fasts IV 

X  Megillah  (nb^O),  The  Scroll IV 

XI  Moed  Katon  (|Dp  "ljn»),  Minor  Feast Ill 

XII  Hagigah  (n^jn),  Feast  of  Offering Ill 

III.   Nashim 

I  Yebamoth  (n103,),  Sisters-in-law XVI 

II  Khethuboth  (ni3W3),  Marriage  Deeds XIII 

III  Nedarim  (Dmj),  Vows XI 

IV  Nazir  (TTJ),  The  Nazarite IX 

V  Sota  (nt21D),  Adulteress IX 

VI  Gittin  (fLVJ),  Divorces IX 

VII  Kiddushin  (ptmp),  Betrothals IV 


314  NOTES 

IV.  Nezikin 

Name  of  Division  Number  of  Section 

I  Baba  Kama  (N»p  K33),  First  Gate X 

II  Baba  Metziah  (NJPVD  NM),  Second  Gate  .  .  X 

III  Baba  Bathra  (Kim  K33),  Last  Gate X 

IV  Sanhedrin  (pinjD),  Courts XI 

V  Maccoth  (JTOD),  Stripes Ill 

VI  Shebuoth  (nW3tJ>),  Oaths VIII 

VII  Eduyoth  (ninj?),  Testimonies VIII 

VIII  Aboda  Zara  (m?  ITTUy),  Idolatry V 

IX  Aboth  (ni3K),  Fathers V 

X  Horayoth  (ninin),  Decisions Ill 

V.  Kodashim 

I  Zebachim  (DTQT),  Sacrifices XIV 

II  Menachoth  (nimD),  Meat  Offering XIII 

III  Cholin  (pyin),  Profane  Things XII 

IV  Bechoroth  (nVVI33),  The  Firstborn IX 

V  Arachin  (p3"iy),  Estimations IX 

VI  Themura  (miDH),  Exchange VII 

VII  Kherithoth  (ninna),  Excisions VI 

VIII  Meila  (n^J»),  Trespass VI 

IX  Thamid  (Ten),  Daily  Sacrifice VII 

X  Middoth  (niTJ),  Measurements V 

XI  Kinnim  (D'jp),  The  Birds'  Nests Ill 

VI.   Teharoth 

I  Khelim  (D^3),  Vessels XXX 

II  Ohaloth  (n^n«),  Tents XVIII 

III  Negaim  (D'JUJ),  Leprosy XIV 

IV  Parah  (H-IS),  The  Heifer XII 

V  Teharoth  (niintO),  Purifications X 

VI  Mikvaoth  (niNlpJD),  Wells X 

VII  Nidda  (mi),  The  Menstruous X 

VIII  Machshirin  (pTE>3»),  Preparations VI 

IX  Zabim  (D^T),  Persons  with  Fluxes V 


NOTES  315 

Name  of  Division  Number  of  Section 

X  Tebul  Yom  (DV  $>U0),  Immersed IV 

XI  Yadayim  (D,T),  Hands IV 

XII  Uktzin  (pvpiy),  Stalks  of  Fruit Ill 

To  each  of  these  sections  a  commentary  by  the  name  of 
Gemara  is  appended,  and  to  it  again  are  added  countless  other 
commentaries,  to  which  again  scholars  in  all  ages  have  added 
and  are  adding  still  glosses  and  comments  in  an  apparently 
endless  chain. 

50.  Teharoth,  Purifications,  is  a  Talmudical  euphemism, 
since  it  really  refers  to  matters  which  are  sacerdotally  inad- 
missible, hence  unclean  for  sacred  uses. 

51.  See  Jost's  Geschichte  des  Judenthums  und  seiner 
Secten,  Vol  II,  p.  202. 

52.  Midrash  Rabba  Lamentations  II,  2. 

53.  The  last  of  the  princes  was  Gamaliel  VI,  who  was  de- 
posed from  the  princely  dignity  by  Emperor  Theodosius  II., 
in  an  edict  dated  October  the  17th,  415  A.C.  (see  Cod.  Theo- 
dosius XIV.,  22);  and  in  a  decree  of  426,  that  same  Emperor 
ordered  the  subsidies  which  the  Patriarch  received  from  the 
Roman  Jewish  Congregations  to  be  paid  into  the  imperial 
treasury. 

The  Patriarchate  embraced  a  period  of  605  years  from  1 80 
B.C.  to  425  A.C.  and  the  reigning  Patriarchs  were  as  follows : 

I  Antigonus  of  Socho 180  B.C. 

II  Yose  ben  Yoezer 170-162 

III  Josua  ben  Perachia   130 

IV  Juda  ben  Tabbai 80 

V  Shemaiah  and  Abtalion 60  " 

VI  Sons  of  Bethyrah 35  " 

VII  Hillel  1 30  B.C.  to  10  A.C. 

VIII  Simon  1 10  A.C.  to  30  A.C. 

IX  Gamaliel  1 30-50      A.C. 

X  Simon  II 50-70         " 


i. 
u 


316  NOTES 

XI  Gamaliel  II 80-116    A.C. 

XII  Simon  III 140-163  " 

XIII  Juda  1 163-193  " 

XIV  Gamaliel  III 193-220  " 

XV  Juda  II 220-270  " 

XVI  Gamaliel  IV 270-300  " 

XVII  Juda  III 300-330  « 

XVIII  Hillel  II 330-365 

XIX  Gamaliel  V 365-385 

XX  Juda  IV 385-400  « 

XXI  Gamaliel  VI 400-425  " 

Of  all  these  Juda  the  First  was  the  Prince  who  gave  regal 
grandeur  to  his  position,  so  that  it  was  said  of  him,  "From 
Moses  the  Lawgiver  to  Rabbi  we  have  not  found  wealth  and 
magnificence  so  combined,"  lrjo  $b  »31  nj?  U^l  7\WO  DllD'O 
inN  Dipm  r6l-m  mm  (Babli  Gittin  59).  The  Patriarchs  who 
succeeded  him  enjoyed  also  extraordinary  privileges,  and  had 
the  actual  rank  of  princes  of  the  empire.  Emperor  Julian 
addressed  Hillel  II  as  rbv  &5e\<pbu  (brother);  and  Emperor 
Theodosius  the  Great  openly  took  sides  with  Gamaliel  V,  who 
was  in  feud  with  a  Roman  Governor  in  Syria  (see  Hieronymus, 
De  Optimo,  etc.). 

54.  Talmud  Babli  Succah  26.  pDB>J  ^ft*®  PPffi  ^211  nTlJSr. 

55.  Haninah  bar  Hama,  in  deference  to  Rabbi  Ephes,  did 
not  accept  the  office  until  two  years  later,  and  this  only  after 
the  death  of  Rabbi  Ephes. 

56.  That  is  what  we  understand  by  the  phrase,  mo  pl"lT 
D^TC^m  (see  Rabbi  Kethuboth  103). 

57.  Talmud  Babli  Kethuboth  104. 

58.  Moses  bsr  Maimon,  in  his  introduction  to  the  Mishnah 
Zeraim,  gives  a  fine  eulogy  of  the  Prince,  and  styles  him  "  Our 
Master,  the  Holy  One." 


BOOKS  AND  MONOGRAPHS  317 

BOOKS  AND  MONOGRAPHS  BY  THE  SAME 

AUTHOR 

"The  Monk  and  the  Hangman's  Daughter."     (A  Novel.) 
"A  Man,  a  Woman  and  a  Million."     (A  Novel.) 
"  In  the  Confessional  and  the  Following."     (Short  Stories.) 
"Labor  Unions  and  Strikes  in  Ancient  Rome."     (Mongr.) 
"The   Position  of  Laboring  Men  among  the  Ancient   He- 
brews."    (Mongr.) 

"Jesus,  the  Pharisee."     (Mongr.) 
"Oriental  Aphorisms."     (Mongr.) 
"Two  Great  Jews."     (Mongr.) 

WORKS  READY  FOR  THE  PRESS 

"  Folk  Lore  of  the  Talmud." 
"The  Empire  of  the  Ghetto." 
"The  Ghetto  Apostate."    (A  Novel.) 
"In  His  Image."    (A  Novel.) 
"Semper  Idem."     (A  Novel.) 
"  The  Conquest  of  the  Senoritas."     (A  Novel.) 
"With  Men  and  Women."     (Short  Stories.) 
"The  Red  Hand  of  William  Wallace."     (A  Drama  in  Four 
Acts.) 

"Valera."    (A  Dramatic  Libretto  in  Three  Acts.) 
Etc.,  etc.,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 


INDEX. 

Aaron,  High  Priest,  II,  15,  38,  123 

Abtalion,  head  of  Sanhedrin  with  Shemaiah,  20  ;  one  of  his  sayings, 

179 

Abuiah,  Rabbi,  father  of  Elisha  ben  Abuiah,  204 

Acher,  signification  of,  206,  208 

Adultery,  test  for,  60 

Agadah,  or  Hagadah,  the  parabolic  exposition  of  the  Pentateuch,  the 
prophets,  and  the  historic  writings,  169 

Antoninus,  Pius,  185  ;  revoked  edicts  of  Hadrian,  245  ;  conversa- 
tions with  Juda  the  prince,  257 

Aquila,  Roman  convert  to  Judaism,  123,  133 

Aramaic,  the,  246,  261 

Artaban,  king,  256 

Asmoneans,  Hashmoneans,  descendants  of  Hashmonai  the  priest, 
3.  4 

Babylonian,  the,  Hillel  so  called,  5,  9,  20,  211 

Bar  Illai,  Rabbi  Juda,  215 

Bar  Kappara,  253 

Bar  Kochba,  the  false  Messiah,  42,  177,  271 

Ben  Abuiah,  Rabbi  Elisha,  204  ;  his  liking  for  Greek  language  and 
culture,  205  ;  branded  as  traitor  and  called  "Acher,"  206  ;  re- 
nounced Judaism  and  probably  embraced  Christianity,  208  ;  his 
memory,  209 

Ben  Akibah,  Rabbi,  89  ;  favorite  disciple  of  Eliezer,  109  ;  volunteer 
messenger,  114;  visit  to  Eliezer,  119;  eulogy  of,  121  ;  view  of 
evening  prayers,  125  ;  not  a  Jew,  152  ;  incident  that  determined 
him  to  study,  153  ;  love  and  marriage,  154  ;  entered  the  school 
of  Eliezer,  154  ;  his  modesty,  his  power  of  analysis,  155  ;  his 
ability,  156;  visit  to  his  wife,  156;  rules  of  interpretation, 
160 ;    joined  the  school  of  Nahum  of  Gamsu,   161  ;    return  to 

319 


320  INDEX 

Ben  Akibah,  Rabbi—  Continued : 

Rachel,  162  ;  reconciliation  with  his  father-in-law,  163 ;  de- 
cisions as  judge,  164 ;  his  maxims,  166 ;  his  ambition,  167 ; 
compared  with  Mohammed,  168  ;  reduced  the  oral  law  to  a  sys- 
tem, 169  ;  arranged  the  Agadah,  169 ;  study  of  magic,  169  ;  his 
teachings,  172  ;  revolution  against  Hadrian,  173  ;  takes  wife  of 
Roman  governor,  175  ;  presents  Bar  Kochba  as  the  Messiah, 
177;  evades  Roman  spies,  178;  council  at  Lydda,  179;  death 
by  torture,  181  ;  one  of  his  sayings,  183  ;  his  versatility,  267 

Ben  Amram,  Rabbi  Jonathan,  rebukes  Juda  the  prince,  254 

Ben  Arakh,  Rabbi  Elazar,  71  ;  a  good  answer,  92  ;  probably  became 
a  Christian,  96 

Ben  Azariah,  Rabbi  Elazar,  president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  afterwards 
assistant,  or  vice-president,  127,  128,  152 

Ben  Azzai,  Rabbi,  son-in-law  of  Rabbi  Akibah,  170 

Benai  (sons  of)  Bethyra,  8,  9,  107,  247 

Ben  Babba,  Rabbi  Judah,  member  of  Sanhedrin  at  Yamnai,  188  ; 
rigid  observer  of  the  law,  212  ;  ordained  Mair  and  Simon,  212  ; 
slain  by  Roman  soldiers,  213 

Ben  Betiach,  62,  63 

Ben  Dosa,  Rabbi  'Haninah,  compared  with  Ben  Zakkai,  73  ;  an 
ascetic  and  mystic,  75  ;  his  sayings,  77  ;  his  judgments,  78  ;  his 
wife,  her  desire  and  dream,  Si  ;  tales  of  his  miraculous  power, 
76,  81,  S2,  84,  85,  88 

Ben  Elisha,  Rabbi  Ishmael,  176 

Ben  Gorion,  Rabbi  Juda,  218,  222 

Ben  Hananiah,  Rabbi  Josua ;  decision  against  Eliezer,  113;  de- 
fended him  after  his  death,  121  ;  his  studies  and  subtlety,  122  ; 
his  engagement  and  its  rupture,  123  ;  an  artisan,  124  ;  president 
of  Court  of  Appeals,  democratic  spirit,  124  ;  disputes  with  Ga- 
maliel, 126  ;  his  travels,  128  ;  put  down  by  woman,  girl,  and  boy, 
129;  in  favor  with  Roman  emperors,  130,  133-138;  forbidding 
fire  for  three  days,  134 ;  carried  sixty  academicians  to  Had- 
rian for  a  wager,  138-142  ;  contest  of  wits,  140  ;  his  sayings, 
148  ;  relations  with  Christians,  149,  150  ;  his  death,  151 

Ben  'Hiyah,  Rabbi  Juda,  revenges  his  father,  248 

Ben  Hyrkanos,  Rabbi  Eliezer,  a  scholar,  brother-in-law  of  Gamaliel, 
96,  97  ;  stubborn  in  his  views,  96,  106  ;  excommunication,  96, 
113;  application  to  Ben  Zakkai,  97;  his  father's  visit  to  the 
school,  100  ;  opened  school  at  Lydda,  103  ;  his  famous  trial  and 


INDEX  321 

Ben  Hyrkanos,  Rabbi  Eliezer — Continued : 

appeal  to  the  walls,  104  ;  interpretation  thereof,  1 10  ;  pleads  for 
tradition,  106,  108  ;  repudiates  suicide,  115  ;  charged  with  being 
a  Christian,  116  ;  his  denial,  119  ;  death,  120  ;  ban  removed  by 
Rabbi  Josua,  and  burial  at  Lydda,  120 

Ben  Illai,  Rabbi,  217,  218 

Ben  Yohai,  Rabbi  Simon,  son  of  a  Jew  in  Roman  service,  213; 
friend  and  disciple  of  Akibah,  213  ;  left  his  wife  in  order  to 
study,  214;  established  a  school  at  Thekoa,  216;  denounced 
the  Romans,  218  ;  betrayed  by  spy  and  fled  to  mountains,  218  ; 
life  in  cave,  219  ;  mystic  power,  221,  224  ;  contempt  of  earthly 
things,  223  ;  opened  school  at  Tiberias,  223  ;  mission  to  Marcus 
Aurelius,  224  ;  cures  the  emperor's  daughter,  224  ;  sayings  and 
maxims,  226,  228,  229 ;  form  of  mental  activity  of  the  Jewish 
race,  231  ;  decision  in  divorce,  231  ;  buried  in  cave,  238  (a.d.  165) 

Ben  Zakkai,  Rabbi  Yochanan,  favorite  disciple  of  Hillel  and  founder 
of  modern  Judaism,  13  ;  diplomat  and  scholar,  55  ;  his  patience, 
56  ;  virtual  head  of  Sanhedrin,  58  ;  his  boldness,  60  ;  abolished 
ordeal  of  "bitter  waters,"  37,  60  ;  also  "  red  cow  "  offering,  60  ; 
opposed  to  insurrection,  63 ;  left  doomed  city  in  coffin,  65  ; 
sought  refuge  in  the  emperor's  camp,  66  ;  got  permission  to 
found  a  school  at  Yamnai,  67  ;  formed  a  Sanhedrin,  69  ;  mourns 
over  ruin  of  the  Temple  and  prophesies  a  spiritual  temple,  68  ; 
consolations  at  death  of  son,  71  ;  his  death,  72  ;  choice  of  disci- 
ples, 91  ;  reception  of  Eliezer,  97 

Ben  Zoma,  Simon,  trusted  agent  of  Josua,  131  ;  parable,  132  ;  his 
death,  132  ;  one  of  the  four  mystics,  170 

Beruriah,  wife  of  Rabbi  Mair,  191  ;  her  skill  in  controversy,  192  ; 
the  student's  stratagem,  202 

Bethar,  fortress,  178 

Bible,  translated  by  Aquila,  123 

Cabalah,  169 

Caiaphas,  Joseph,  45-47 

Calba  Sebuah,  father-in-law  of  Rabbi  Akibah,  101,  153,  i52 

Captivity,   the  ;    Introduction,  x.  ;    the   prince,  or   exilarch,  of  the 

Babylonian  Jews,  247 
Christianity,  a  historical  fact,  34  ;  it  is  Judaism  developed,  71,  117 
Circumcision,  245,  252 
Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  1 


322  INDEX 

Divorce,  201,  231 
Domitian,  130 

Eleazar,  son  of  Ben  Yohai,  218  ;  made  captain  of  Roman  soldiers, 
234  ;  his  death  and  disposal  of  his  body,  238  ;  sarcasms,  246  ; 
Rabbi  Juda's  suit  of  his  widow,  239,  272 

Exilarch,  title  of  the  prince  of  the  Babylonian  Jews,  247 

Gamaliel  I.,  Rabbi,  president  of  Sanhedrin,  53,  5S 

Gamaliel  II.,  Rabbi,  president  of  Sanhedrin,  70,  84,  104,  no,  113, 

215,  244 
Gamaliel  III.,  son  of  Juda  the  prince,  272 
Gate,  "  the  Death,"  65 
Gemara,  commentary  on  the  Mishna,  261-268 

Hadrian,  emperor  of  Rome,  131,  133,  174,  185,  245 

Herod,  leaned  towards  Sadducees,  4  ;  ruled  in  Palestine,  5 

Halakah,  the  oral  teaching,  94 

High  Priests,  their  policy,  4  ;  riches,  6  ;  indifference  to  learning  and 
religion,  35  ;  no  political  power,  38  ;  one  of  them  slain,  39  ; 
Joseph  Caiaphas,  45  ;  intruding  high  priests,  3,  57  ;  tyranny 
and  corruption,  61 

Hillel,  Rabbi  :  Introduction,  xii  ;  birth,  5  ;  poverty,  6 ;  elected 
president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  9  ;  Gentile  teachers,  9  ;  foresaw  the 
exile,  10,  28  ;  Davidic  descent,  n,  240 ;  doctrines  and  teachings, 
11,  12,  14,  17,  20,  21  ;  his  policy,  paving  the  way  for  universal 
faith,  13  ;  foundation  for  the  work  of  Jesus  Christ,  13,  29,  32, 
35  ;  not  a  reformer,  14  ;  the  Prosbul  Act,  14,  22  ;  absence  of 
the  miraculous,  15  ;  story  of  a  heathen's  visit  to  him,  15,  18  ; 
cared  more  for  good  men  than  scholars,  21  ;  his  knowledge,  24  ; 
his  patience  and  meekness,  24  ;  prepared  the  people  for  exile, 
28  ;  his  tact,  29  ;  his  death,  29  ;  analogy  between  his  teachings 
and  those  of  Christ,  36  ;  Hillelism,  68  ;  policy  of  his  house, 
240  ;  transmitted  presidency  to  his  family,  211,  244 

'Hiyah,  the  great  Babylonian,  offends  Juda  the  prince,  248 

Huna,  the  exilarch,  or  prince  of  the  captivity,  247 

Hyrkan,  John,  High  Priest,  3 

Hyrkanos,  visit  to  his  son  Eliezer,  100 

Ishmael,  Phabi,  High  Priest,  38,  61 


INDEX  323 

James,  disciple  of  the  Christ,  116,  118,  119 

Jesus  of  Nazareth,  his  history,  from  the  Talmud,  30  ;  his  descent, 
33  ;  authentic  history,  34  ;  an  exile,  35  ;  his  baptism,  41  ;  how 
he  began  his  mission,  42  ;  the  people  not  hostile  to  him,  43  ; 
the  High  Priests  saw  danger  to  themselves  in  his  mission,  44  ; 
Galilean  independence,  44;  plot  against  him,  45  ;  no  crime  to 
proclaim  himself  the  Messiah,  47  ;  Pilate  examines  him,  49  ; 
his  death  on  the  cross,  50  ;  Jesus  and  Hillel  compared,  51  ;  his 
greatness,  52  ;  who  are  responsible  for  his  death,  49,  52 

John  the  Baptist,  36,  41 

Josua  ben  Perachia  repulsed  Jesus,  32 

Juda  the  prince,  Rabbi  ;  his  title,  II,  242  ;  his  actual  office,  243  ; 
son  of  Gamaliel  II.,  244;  his  birth,  244  ;  education,  246  ;  def- 
erence to  Babylonian  prince,  247  ;  pride  in  his  descent,  248  ; 
his  policy  that  of  Hillel,  249,  250  ;  his  sayings,  250  ;  modified 
Sabbath  observances,  252 ;  opposition,  252,  254  ;  rebuke  of 
Jonathan  ben  Amram,  254  ;  friendly  to  Christians,  256  ;  rela- 
tions with  Roman  rulers,  257  ;  Jewish  emigration,  258  ;  efforts 
to  create  a  Jewish  literature,  the  Mishna,  259-269  ;  systematized 
Jewish  law,  261-269  ;  other  work,  270 ;  office  of  patriarch 
abolished,  272  ;  removed  to  Sephoris,  272  ;  appointed  his  sons 
to  office,  his  death,  273 

Judean  Christians  and  friendly  Jews,  22,  150,  256 

Julian,  emperor,  271 

Julianus,  joint  leader  with  Pappus  of  the  rebellion  against  Trajan, 

131.  173 

Ki  Dor,  villainous  innkeeper,  198 

Ki  Tobh,  name  given  to  the  sun  by  Rabbi  Mair,  197 

Legends,  Parables,  etc.: 

A  dangerous  passenger,  230 

a  Jewish  Lucretia,  202 

Akibah  shown  to  Adam,  156 

Artaban's  gift,  256 

body  and  soul,  257 

cure  of  Marcus  Aurelius's  daughter,  224 

death  of  husbandmen,  221 

dream  of  'Haninah  ben  Dosa's  wife,  81 

failure  of  attempt  to  make  Hillel  angry,  25 


324  INDEX 

Legends,  Parables,  etc. — Continued  : 

Fifth  Book  of  Moses,  the,  227 

'Haninah  ben  Dosa  and  the  block  of  marble,  82 

Josua  and  the  sixty  academicians,  137 

Ki  Dor  and  the  three  Rabbis,  198 

king  and  his  twin  brother,  the,  190 

lamp  filled  with  vinegar,  the,  83 

letters  of  Hebrew  alphabet  crowned,  156 

lion  and  the  fox,  the,  186 

lion  with  bone  in  throat,  the,  133 

maiden's  rescue,  the,  88 

princess  and  the  spindle,  the,  147 

Rabbi  Eleazar  and  the  misshapen  man,  236 

Rabbi  Josua  put  down  by  woman,  girl,  and  boy,  129 

Rabbi  Mair  and  his  friend  the  sun,  197 

Rabbi  Mair  and  the  woman's  accusation,  201 

rescue  of  sister-in-law,   194 

serpents  bite  law-breakers,  222 

spell-bound  sorcerer,  the,  144 

tasting  of  swine's  flesh,  196 

testimony  of  tree,  brook,  and  walls,  104 

traitor  turned  to  stone,  222 

two  men  and  a  dove,  258 

widow  Ikho  and  the  beams,  the,  85 

Yokai  and  the  bird,  220 
Loans,  innovations  by  Hillel,  see  Prosbul  Act 
Lydda,  academic  centre  under  Gamaliel  II.,  103,  116,  179 

Maimonides,  codified  the  Talmudic  laws,  274 

Mair,  Rabbi,  181  ;  enigmatical  character,  185  ;  his  parables,  186  ; 
dialectitian,  literary  work,  187  ;  made  reader  in  Sanhedrin, 
188 ;  threatened  with  excommunication,  189 ;  dislike  for 
materialism,  189;  his  strictness,  190;  his  family  life,  191; 
death  of  his  sons,  192  ;  other  tales  and  legends,  194,  196-198  ; 
jealousies  among  students,  201  ;  student  tricking  his  wife, 
202  ;  goes  to  Sardes,  203  ;  his  sayings,  204  ;  a  woman's  charge, 
204  ;  his  friendship  with  Elisha  made  a  charge  against  him,  208  ; 
his  death,  209  ;  his  axiom,  210 

Marcus  Aurelius,  224 

Mar  Samuel,  physician,  251,  253,  272 


INDEX  325 

Materialists,  189 

"  Men  of  miracles,"  86 

Mercabah,  the,  theosophy,  or  mystic  lore,  93 

Messiah,  the,  expected,  41,  159,  176;  the  highest  ideal  fulfilled  in 

Jesus  Christ,  50,  51  ;  the  false  Messiah,  42,  177,  271 
Minim,  heretics,  33 
Mishna,  the,  260-269 
Mohammed,  Introduction,  viii.  ;   168 
Mosaic  Law,  the,  14,  20,  23,  48,  243 

Nahum  of  Gamsu,  a  famous  doctor  and  mystic,  159;  fatalist,  He- 
brew of  Hebrews,  160;  legend  showing  his  sanctity,  161; 
teacher  of  Rabbi  Akibah,  161 

Nasi,  prince,  11 

Oral  law,  or  tradition,  the,  31,  91,  169,  259 

Ordination,  by   laying-on    of   hands,  or  by  the  kiss,  forbidden  by 

Hadrian,  181,  185,  188,  212,  213 
Otho-ha-Ish,  name  given  to  Christ,  32 

Parables,  see  Legends,  Parables,  etc. 

Paradise,  or  Pardes,  170,  206 

Pappus,  leader  of  rebellion  against  Trajan,  131,  173,  180 

Passover  given  precedence  over  the  Sabbath,  8,  9 

Patriarch,  title  of  the  president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  5  ;  abolished,  271 

Patriarchate,  the,  69,  211,  271 

Paul  of  Tarsus,  57  ;  his  style  reflects  the  Agadah,  169 

Pharisees,  the,  their  teachings,  5  ;  meaning  of  the  word,  35  ;  cor- 
rupt, 39;  "dyed  Pharisees,"  40  ;  eight  hundred  crucified,  40; 
not  responsible  for  death  of  Christ,  53 

Pilate,  Pontius,  fifth  procurator  of  Judea,  33  ;  Christ  brought  before 
him,  48  ;  examined  and  tries  to  save  him,  49 

Practice,  a  system  of  religious  observance,  75 

Prosbul  Act,  the,  14,  22 

Rabbis,  the,  teachers  of  the  Law  and  a  sort  of  clergy,  2  ;  inter- 
mediate between  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  4;  judges,  38; 
sometimes  artisans,  6,  124 

Rachel,  wife  of  Ben  Akibah,  154,  156,  162. 


326  INDEX 

Rufus,  governor  of  Judea,  174  ;  his  wife  left  him  for  Ben  Akibah, 
175  ;  he  retreated  to  fortifications,  178 ;  he  tortured  Ben 
Akibah,  181 

Sabbath,  the,  7-9 

Sadducees,  the,  3,  9 ;  the  tendency  of  their  principles,  4  ;  the  local 

aristocracy  of  Palestine,  35  ;  their  doctrinal  position  similar  to 

Puritans,  37  ;  their  main  object,  39  ;  loss  of  influence,  67 
Sanhedrin,  the,  2,  3,  5,  38,  40;  the  new  one,  67,  69,  in  ;  custom, 

188  ;  interpreters  of  the  Law,  243,  271 
Severus,  Roman  general,  178 
Shammai,  Rabbi,  Introduction,  xii.  ;  opposed  Hillel,  10,  12  ;  zealous 

nationalist,  14  ;  hated  foreign  element,  17 
Shemaiah,  6,  8,  20 
Siccarees,  the,  58,  62,  205 

Simon  I.,  Rabbi,  president  of  the  Sanhedrin  and  son  of  Hillel,  58 
Simon  II.,  Rabbi,  son  of  Gamaliel  II.,  58,  189,  244 
Simon  III.,  Rabbi,  president  of  Sanhedrin,  188  ;  father  to  Juda  the 

prince,  244 
Sopherim,  the,  4 

Talmud,  the,  an  encyclopedia,  31  ;  Christ's  name  frequent  in  it,  32  ; 

its  spirit,  93  ;  its  composition  and  arrangement,  261-274. 
Tax,  the,  fiscus  judcrus,  130 
Temple,  the,  34,  36,  57  ;  of  hearts,   59 ;  a  spiritual,  68  ;   prophecy 

ceased,  86  ;  destruction  ordered,  176 

Vespasian,  emperor,  66,  69 

Yam  Trajanus,  Trajan's  day,  131 
Yamnai,  school  of,  67  ;  seat  of  new  Sanhedrin,  67,  69 
Yannai,  king,  crucified  eight  hundred  Pharisees,  40 
Year  of  Release,  22,  221,  226 


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humor  and  the  pictures  cannot  fail  to  be  amusing." — N.  Y. 

Times  Saturday  Review. 

"Marvelously  funny  were  these  adventures  of  a  group  of 
Irish  peasants  in  the  hunting  field,  and  they  are  described  in 
racy  style  with  many  colored  pictures." — Philadelphia  Press. 
"It  bubbles  with  fun  all  through."— Brooklyn  Eagle. 

Fishing  and  Shooting 

By  Sydney  Buxton.  With  illustrations  by  Archi- 
bald Thorburn.  8vo,  $3.50  net. 
"This  attractive  book,  one  of  the  most  fascinating,  indeed, 
of  the  season.  ...  As  charming  a  library  companion  as 
a  sportsman  could  desire  these  forlorn  winter  evenings.  .  . 
For  my  part,  I  shall  look  eagerly  forward  to  his  next  sporting 
book — and  until  it  comes  I  shall  read  this  one  again,  and  yet 
a  third  time." — Morning  Post. 


4  E.  P.  BUTTON  &  COMPANY 

THE  POPULAR  LIBRARY  OF  ART 

Edited  by  Edward  Garnett.  Each  volume  i6mo.,  200 
pages,  with  30  to  60  illustrations.  Each,  cloth,  75 
cents  net.     Each,  leather,  $1.00  net. 

New  volumes 

Millet 

By  ROMAIN   ROLLAND. 

Fred.  Walker 

By  Clementina  Black. 
"That  versatile  genius  of  modern  English  art,  the  friend 
and  proteg6  of  Thackeray,  Frederick  Walker,  is  the  subject 
of  a  charmingly  written  essay,  biographical  and  critical, 
written  by  Clementina  Black,  whose  work  is  full  of  spon- 
taneity and  sympathy." — N.  Y.  Times  Saturday  Review. 

Albrecht  Dtirer 

By  Lena  Eckenstein. 

"A  charming  series.  The  pictures  serve  admirably  the  best 
purpose  of  book  illustration,  and  help  the  reader  the  better 
to  understand  the  letterpress.  Instructive  and  attractive. 
They  deserve  to  be  widely  popular." — Scotsman. 

Haydn 

By  J.  Cuthbert  Hadden.     Illustrated.      i2mo,  $1.25. 

This  new  volume  in  "The  Master  Musicians"  is  the  fullest 

life  that  has  so  far  appeared  in  English  and  really  the  one 

book  available  that  gives  the  man's  career  with  an  account 

of  his  place  as  a  composer. 


NEW  MISCELLANEOUS  BOOKS  5 

Avenues  to  Health 

By  Eustace  H.  Miles,  author  of  "The  Training  of  the 
Body,"  etc.      nmo,  cloth,  $1.50  net. 

"The  book  is  simply,  cleanly  written,  and  has  about  it  an 
atmosphere  of  sincereness,  the  surety  of  experience.  It 
should  be  a  valuable  adjunct  to  every  young  man's  and 
young  woman's  possessions,  and  have  a  place  in  every  family." 
— Chicago  Journal. 

"The  book  is  unusually  wise  and  comprehensive." — 
Boston  Journal. 


Daily  Training 

By  E.   F.   Benson  and  Eustace   H.  Miles.     i2mo. 
$1.50  net. 

This  book  by  two  well-known  writers  in  different  fields 
discusses  diet,  exercises,  bathing,  air,  etc.,  in  a  way  that  will 
be  invaluable  to  all  living  in  cities  who  are  unable  to  take 
out-of-door  exercise. 


Social  Germany  in  Luther's  Time 

Being  the  Memoirs  of  Bartholomew  Sastrow,  trans- 
lated by  Albert  D.  Vandam.  Introduction  by  Her- 
bert A.  L.  Fisher,  M.A.  Illustrated.  8vo,  $2.50 
net. 

These  memoirs,  written  by  a  German  Burgomaster  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  give  a  marvellously  vivid  picture  of  Ger- 
many under  Charles  V.  Sastrow  attended  the  Imperial 
Court  at  Augsburg,  Spires,  and  elsewhere,  and  gives  an  aston- 
ishing account  of  the  austere  Charles  and  his  corrupt  sur- 
roundings. 


6  E.  P.  BUTTON  &  COMPANY 

Toscanelli  and  Columbus;    the  Letter  and  Chart  of 
Toscanelli  on  the  Route  to  the  Indes,  etc. 

A  Critical  Study.     By  Henry  Vignaud.     With  map 
and  facsimiles.     8vo,  $3.00  net. 
"M.  Vignaud's  work  is  a  signal  example  of  a  book  pro- 
digiously erudite  and  unmistakably  popular." — Outlook. 

Submarine  Warfare,  Past,  Present,  and  Future 

By    Herbert    E.    Fyfe.     With   an   introduction   by 
Admiral    Fremantle,  and  a  chapter  on   the   Future 
of  the  Submarine  by  Sir  Edward  J.  Reed.     50  illus- 
trations.     8vo,  $3.00  net. 
"A  most   timely  and  highly  instructive  work,   and  one 
which  gives  to  the  non-technical  world  an  extremely  good 
review  of  all  that  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  submarine 
warfare,  while  the  technical  man,  into  whose  hands  it  may 
come,   will  be  compelled  by  its  great  interest   and  by  its 
clever  record  of  facts,  to  read  every  page  of  it." — Nation. 

The  Primrose  and  Darwinism 

By  A  Field  Naturalist.     121x10,  cloth,  $2.00  net. 

"The  author  regards  Darwin  as  holding  a  very  exag- 
gerated estimate  of  the  influence  of  cross-fertilization  among 
flowers.  That  estimate  he  finds  corrected  by  direct  observa- 
tion in  the  fields.  The  evidence  for  this  statement  is  pre- 
sented in  these  pages." — Outlook. 

"The  book  is  worth  close  reading,  and  should  have  a  wide 
circulation." — Living  Church. 

The  Beauty  of  Holiness 

Meditations  and  Addresses  Delivered  chiefly  at  Cud- 
desdon.  By  the  Rev.  C.  W.  Furse,  Late  Canon  and 
Archdeacon  of  Westminster;    sometime  Principal  of 


NEW  MISCELLANEOUS  BOOKS 


Cuddesdon  Theological  College.  Edited  by  the  Rev. 
C.  T.  Abraham.  With  a  short  Memoir  of  the  author. 
8vo,  cloth,  $2.50  net. 

Notes  on  Fortification 

With  a  Synoptical  Chart.     By  Major  B.   R.  Ward, 
R.E.     8vo,  $2.00  net. 
"Containing   some   very   pertinent   points   on    permanent 
fortification,    sea    power,    coast    defence,    etc." — Army    and 
Navy  Register. 

"The  chart  contains  a  vast  amount  of  interesting  and  in- 
structive information." — United  Service  Gazette. 

India  and  Its  Problems 

By  W.  S.  Lilly.     8vo,  $3.00  net. 

"An  extremely  interesting,  popular,  compact  account  of 
India  from  the  standpoint  of  an  ex-official.  Upon  all  points 
his  observations,  clearly  and  frankly  put,  are  full  of  interest." 
— Outlook. 

"A  very  interesting  and  compendious  study." — Church- 
man. 

The  Siege  of  York 

In  the  Days  of  Thomas  Lord  Fairfax.     By  Beatrice 
Marshall,  author  of  "Old  Blackfriars,"  etc.     Illus- 
trated.     i2mo,  $1.50. 
"  Miss  Marshall    has  inherited  her  mother's  gifts,  and  in 
turning  over  the  pages  of  this  gracefully-written  story  it  was 
difficult  to  realise  that  it  did  not  come  from  the  hand  that 
gave  us  so  many  charming  pictures  in  historical  settings." 
Guardia  n . 


8  E.  P.  BUTTON  fir-  COMPANY 

A  NEW  VOLUME  IN  "  THE  CHURCH'S  OUTLOOK" 

SERIES. 


The  Position  of  the  Laity  in  the  Church 

By  Alfred  Barry,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  Canon  of  Windsor 
and  Assistant  Bishop  in  the  Diocese  of  London ; 
formerly  Bishop  of  Sydney  and  Primate  of  Australia. 
i2mo,  cloth.     $1.00  net. 


Important  Announcement 

The  Works  of  Charles  Lamb 

E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.  take  pleasure  in  announcing 
that  they  will  publish  during  the  year  an  edition  of 
the  works  of  Charles  Lamb.  It  will  be  called  "The 
Temple  Edition"  and  will  probably  be  in  twelve 
volumes.  It  will  be  attractively  bound  and  illus- 
trated (by  Brock  and  others)  and  will  contain  Let- 
ters and  other  material  that  have  never  appeared  in  a 
set  of  Lamb. 


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